THYROID
SPECIAL ARTICLE
Volume 26, Number 1, 2016
ª American Thyroid Association
ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/thy.2015.0020
2015 American Thyroid Association Management
Guidelines for Adult Patients with Thyroid Nodules
and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer
The American Thyroid Association Guidelines Task Force
on Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer
Bryan R. Haugen,1,* Erik K. Alexander,2 Keith C. Bible,3 Gerard M. Doherty,4 Susan J. Mandel,5
Yuri E. Nikiforov,6 Furio Pacini,7 Gregory W. Randolph,8 Anna M. Sawka,9 Martin Schlumberger,10
Kathryn G. Schuff,11 Steven I. Sherman,12 Julie Ann Sosa,13 David L. Steward,14
R. Michael Tuttle,15 and Leonard Wartofsky16
Background: Thyroid nodules are a common clinical problem, and differentiated thyroid cancer is becoming
increasingly prevalent. Since the American Thyroid Association’s (ATA’s) guidelines for the management of
these disorders were revised in 2009, significant scientific advances have occurred in the field. The aim of these
guidelines is to inform clinicians, patients, researchers, and health policy makers on published evidence relating
to the diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer.
Methods: The specific clinical questions addressed in these guidelines were based on prior versions of the
guidelines, stakeholder input, and input of task force members. Task force panel members were educated on
knowledge synthesis methods, including electronic database searching, review and selection of relevant cita-
tions, and critical appraisal of selected studies. Published English language articles on adults were eligible for
inclusion. The American College of Physicians Guideline Grading System was used for critical appraisal of
evidence and grading strength of recommendations for therapeutic interventions. We developed a similarly
formatted system to appraise the quality of such studies and resultant recommendations. The guideline panel
had complete editorial independence from the ATA. Competing interests of guideline task force members were
regularly updated, managed, and communicated to the ATA and task force members.
Results: The revised guidelines for the management of thyroid nodules include recommendations regarding
initial evaluation, clinical and ultrasound criteria for fine-needle aspiration biopsy, interpretation of fine-needle
aspiration biopsy results, use of molecular markers, and management of benign thyroid nodules. Re-
commendations regarding the initial management of thyroid cancer include those relating to screening for
thyroid cancer, staging and risk assessment, surgical management, radioiodine remnant ablation and therapy,
and thyrotropin suppression therapy using levothyroxine. Recommendations related to long-term management
1University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado.
2Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
3The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.
4Boston Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts.
5Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
6University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
7The University of Siena, Siena, Italy.
8Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
9University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
10Institute Gustave Roussy and University Paris Sud, Villejuif, France.
11Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon.
12University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas.
13Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina.
14University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.
15Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York.
16MedStar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, DC.
*Chair.
Authors are listed in alphabetical order and were appointed by ATA to independently formulate the content of this manuscript. None of
the scientific or medical content of the manuscript was dictated by the ATA.
1
2
HAUGEN ET AL.
of differentiated thyroid cancer include those related to surveillance for recurrent disease using imaging and
serum thyroglobulin, thyroid hormone therapy, management of recurrent and metastatic disease, consideration
for clinical trials and targeted therapy, as well as directions for future research.
Conclusions: We have developed evidence-based recommendations to inform clinical decision-making in the
management of thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. They represent, in our opinion, contemporary
optimal care for patients with these disorders.
INTRODUCTION
also present important clinical challenges in many clinical
practice settings.
Thyroid nodules are a common clinical problem.
Epidemiologic studies have shown the prevalence of
AIM AND TARGET AUDIENCE
palpable thyroid nodules to be approximately 5% in women
and 1% in men living in iodine-sufficient parts of the world
Our objective in these guidelines is to inform clinicians,
(1,2). In contrast, high-resolution ultrasound (US) can detect
patients, researchers, and health policy makers about the best
thyroid nodules in 19%–68% of randomly selected individ-
available evidence (and its limitations), relating to the dia-
uals, with higher frequencies in women and the elderly (3,4).
gnosis and treatment of adult patients with thyroid nodules
The clinical importance of thyroid nodules rests with the need
and DTC. These guidelines should not be applied to children
to exclude thyroid cancer, which occurs in 7%–15% of cases
(<18–20 years old); recent ATA guidelines for children with
depending on age, sex, radiation exposure history, family
thyroid nodules and DTC were published in 2015 (14). This
history, and other factors (5,6). Differentiated thyroid cancer
document is intended to inform clinical decision-making. A
(DTC), which includes papillary and follicular cancer, com-
major goal of these guidelines is to minimize potential harm
prises the vast majority (>90%) of all thyroid cancers (7). In
from overtreatment in a majority of patients at low risk for
the United States, approximately 63,000 new cases of thyroid
disease-specific mortality and morbidity, while appropriately
cancer were predicted to be diagnosed in 2014 (8) compared
treating and monitoring those patients at higher risk. These
with 37,200 in 2009 when the last ATA guidelines were
guidelines should not be interpreted as a replacement for
published. The yearly incidence has nearly tripled from 4.9 per
clinical judgement and should be used to complement in-
100,000 in 1975 to 14.3 per 100,000 in 2009 (9). Almost the
formed, shared patient–health care provider deliberation on
entire change has been attributed to an increase in the inci-
complex issues. It is important to note that national clinical
dence of papillary thyroid cancer (PTC). Moreover, 25% of the
practice guidelines may not necessarily constitute a legal
new thyroid cancers diagnosed in 1988–1989 were £1 cm
standard of care in all jurisdictions (15). If important differ-
compared with 39% of the new thyroid cancer diagnoses in
ences in practice settings present barriers to meaningful im-
2008–2009 (9). This tumor shift may be due to the increasing
plementation of the recommendations of these guidelines,
use of neck ultrasonography or other imaging and early diag-
interested physicians or groups (in or outside of the United
nosis and treatment (10), trends that are changing the initial
States) may consider adapting the guidelines using estab-
treatment and follow-up for many patients with thyroid cancer.
lished methods (16,17) (ADAPTE Collaboration, 2009;
A recent population-based study from Olmsted County re-
www.g-i-n.net). The ADAPTE Collaboration is an interna-
ported the doubling of thyroid cancer incidence from 2000 to
tional group of researchers, guideline developers, and guide-
2012 compared to the prior decade as entirely attributable to
line implementers who aim to promote the development and
clinically occult cancers detected incidentally on imaging or
use of clinical practice guidelines through the adaption of
pathology (11). By 2019, one study predicts that PTC will
existing guidelines. Because our primary focus was review-
become the third most common cancer in women at a cost of
ing the quality of evidence related to health outcomes and
$19–21 billion in the United States (12). Optimization of long-
diagnostic testing, we decided a priori not to focus on eco-
term health outcomes and education about potential prognosis
nomic resource implications in these guidelines. As part of
for individuals with thyroid neoplasms is critically important.
our review, we identified some knowledge gaps in the field,
In 1996, the American Thyroid Association (ATA) pub-
with associated future research priorities.
lished treatment guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules
Other groups have previously developed clinical practice
and DTC (13). Over the last 15–20 years, there have been
guidelines, including the American Association of Clinical
many advances in the diagnosis and therapy of both thyroid
Endocrinologists, Associazione Medici Endocrinologi, and
nodules and DTC, but clinical controversy exists in many
the European Thyroid Association (18), the British Thyroid
areas. A long history of insufficient peer-reviewed research
Association and The Royal College of Physicians (19), and
funding for high-quality clinical trials in the field of thyroid
the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (www.nccn
neoplasia may be an important contributing factor to existing
.org). The European Thyroid Association has published con-
clinical uncertainties (12). Methodologic limitations or con-
sensus guidelines for postoperative US in the management of
flicting findings of older studies present a significant chal-
DTC (20). The Society for Nuclear Medicine and Molecular
lenge to modern-day medical decision-making in many
Imaging (21) and the European Association of Nuclear Med-
aspects of thyroid neoplasia. Although they are not a specific
icine have also published guidelines for radioiodine (RAI)
focus of these guidelines, we recognize that feasibility and cost
therapy of DTC (22). The Japanese Society of Thyroid Sur-
considerations of various diagnostic and therapeutic options
geons and the Japanese Association of Endocrine Surgeons
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
3
Table 1. Interpretation of the American College of Physicians’ Guideline Grading
System (for Therapeutic Interventions)
Recommendation
Clarity of risk/benefit
Implications
Strong recommendation Benefits clearly outweigh
Patients: Most would want course of action; a person should
harms and burdens,
request discussion if an intervention is not offered.
or vice versa.
Clinicians: Most patients should receive the recommended
course of action.
Policymakers: The recommendation can be adopted as policy
in most circumstances.
Weak recommendation
Benefits closely balanced
Patients: Many would want course of action, but some may
with harms and burdens.
not; the decision may depend on individual circumstances.
Clinicians: Different choices will be appropriate for different
patients; the management decision should be consistent
with patients’ preferences and circumstances.
Policymakers: Policymaking will require careful consideration
and stakeholder input.
No recommendation
Balance of benefits and
Decisions based on evidence cannot be made.
risks cannot be determined.
have recently revised guidelines on treatment of patients with
(25). Because of the rapid growth of the literature on this
thyroid tumors (23). Given the existing controversies in the
topic, plans for revising the guidelines within approximately
field, differences in critical appraisal approaches for existing
4 years of publication were made at the inception of the
evidence, and differences in clinical practice patterns across
project. A task force chair was appointed by the ATA Pre-
geographic regions and physician specialties, it should not be
sident with approval of the Board. A task force of specialists
surprising that the organizational guidelines are not in com-
with complementary expertise (endocrinology, surgery, nu-
plete agreement for all issues. Such differences highlight the
clear medicine, radiology, pathology, oncology, molecular
importance of clarifying evidence uncertainties with future
diagnostics, and epidemiology) was appointed. In order to
high quality clinical research.
have broad specialty and geographic representation, as well
as fresh perspectives, one-third of the task force is replaced
for each iteration of the guidelines, per ATA policy. Upon
METHODS
discussion among the panel members and the Chair with other
ATA Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer
Chairs of other ATA guideline committees, the American
guidelines were published in 2006 (24) and revised in 2009
College of Physicians’ (ACP) Grading System was adopted
Table 2. Recommendations (for Therapeutic Interventions) Based on Strength of Evidence
Recommendation
and evidence quality
Description of supporting evidencea
Interpretation
Strong recommendation
High-quality evidence
RCT without important limitations
Can apply to most patients in most
or overwhelming evidence from
circumstances without reservation
observational studies
Moderate-quality evidence
RCT with important limitations
Can apply to most patients in most
or strong evidence from
circumstances without reservation
observational studies
Low-quality evidence
Observational studies/case studies
May change when higher-quality
evidence becomes available
Weak recommendation
High-quality evidence
RCT without important limitations
Best action may differ based on
or overwhelming evidence from
circumstances or patients’ values
observational studies
Moderate-quality evidence
RCT with important limitations
Best action may differ based on
or strong evidence from observational
circumstances or patients’ values
studies
Low-quality evidence
Observational studies/case studies
Other alternatives may be equally
reasonable
Insufficient
Evidence is conflicting, of poor
Insufficient evidence to recommend
quality, or lacking
for or against
aThis description of supporting evidence refers to therapy, therapeutic strategy, or prevention studies. The description of supporting
evidence is different for diagnostic accuracy studies.
RCT, randomized controlled trial.
4
HAUGEN ET AL.
Table 3. Interpretation of the American Thyroid Association Guideline Grading
System for Diagnostic Tests
Accuracy of diagnostic
information versus risks
Recommendation
and burden of testinga
Implications
Strong
Knowledge of the diagnostic
Patients: In the case of an accurate test for which benefits
recommendation
test result clearly outweighs
outweigh risks/burden, most would want the diagnostic to
risks and burden of testing
be offered (with appropriate counseling). A patient should
or vice versa.
request discussion of the test if it is not offered. In contrast,
for a test in which risks and burden outweigh the benefits,
most patients should not expect the test to be offered.
Clinicians: In the case of an accurate test for which
benefits outweigh risks/burden, most patients should
be offered the diagnostic test (and provided relevant
counseling). Counseling about the test should include a
discussion of the risks, benefits, and uncertainties related
to testing (as applicable), as well as the implications of the
test result. In contrast, for a test in which risks and burden
outweigh the perceived benefits, most patients should not
be offered the test, or if the test is discussed, the rationale
against the test should, for the particular clinical situation,
be explained.
Policymakers: In the case of an accurate test for which
benefits outweigh risks/burden, availability of the
diagnostic test should be adopted in health policy.
In contrast, for a test in which risks and burden
outweigh the perceived benefits, some restrictions on
circumstances for test use may need to be considered.
Weak
Knowledge of the diagnostic
Patients: Most would want to be informed about the
recommendation
test result is closely balanced
diagnostic test, but some would not want to seriously
with risks and burden of testing.
consider undergoing the test; a decision may depend
on the individual circumstances (e.g., risk of disease,
comorbidities, or other), the practice environment,
feasibility of optimal execution of the test, and
consideration of other available options.
Clinicians: Different choices will be appropriate for
different patients, and counseling about the test (if
being considered) should include a discussion of the
risks, benefits, and uncertainties related to testing (as
applicable), as well as the implications of the test
result. The decision to perform the test should include
consideration of the patients’ values, preferences,
feasibility, and the specific circumstances. Counseling
the patient on why the test may be helpful or not, in
her/his specific circumstance, may be very valuable in
the decision-making process.
Policymakers: Policymaking decisions on the avail-
ability of the test will require discussion and stake-
holder involvement.
No recommendation
Balance of knowledge of the
Decisions on the use of the test based on evidence from
diagnostic test result cannot
scientific studies cannot be made.
be determined.
aFrequently in these guidelines, the accuracy of the diagnosis of thyroid cancer (relative to a histologic gold standard) was the diagnostic
outcome unless otherwise specified. However, prognostic, disease staging, or risk stratification studies were also included in the grading
scheme of diagnostic studies. For disease staging systems, the implication for use would be on the part of the clinician, in reporting results
in the medical record and communicating them to the patient (at the applicable time point in disease or follow-up trajectory), as opposed to
offering a specific choice of staging/risk stratification system to the patient.
for use in these guidelines, relating to critical appraisal and
for diagnostic tests, but some of the complexity and the time-
recommendations on therapeutic interventions (26) (Tables 1
consuming nature of some systems limited their feasibility
and 2). An important component of these guidelines was
for implementation in our group (27–31). We drafted, re-
judged to be critical appraisal of studies of diagnostic tests;
vised, and piloted the use of a newly developed diagnostic
however, the ACP Guideline Grading System is not designed
test appraisal system that was acceptable to panel members.
for this purpose. We reviewed a number of appraisal systems
This system included consideration of the following
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
5
Table 4. Recommendations (for Diagnostic Interventions) Based on Strength of Evidence
Recommendation and
evidence quality
Methodologic quality of supporting evidence
Interpretation
Strong recommendation
High-quality evidence
Evidence from one or more well-designed
Implies the test can be offered
nonrandomized diagnostic accuracy studies
to most patients in most
(i.e., observational—cross-sectional or cohort)
applicable circumstances
or systematic reviews/meta-analyses of such
without reservation.
observational studies (with no concern about
internal validity or external generalizability
of the results)
Moderate-quality evidence
Evidence from nonrandomized diagnostic accuracy
Implies the test can be offered
studies (cross-sectional or cohort), with one or more
to most patients in most
possible limitations causing minor concern about
applicable circumstances
internal validity or external generalizability of the
without reservation.
results
Low-quality evidence
Evidence from nonrandomized diagnostic accuracy
Implies the test can be offered
studies with one or more important limitations
to most patients in most
causing serious concern about internal validity
applicable circumstances,
or external generalizability of the results
but the utilization of the
test may change when
higher-quality evidence
becomes available.
Weak recommendation
High-quality evidence
Evidence from one or more well-designed nonrando-
The degree to which the di-
mized diagnostic accuracy studies
agnostic test is seriously
(i.e., observational—cross-sectional or cohort)
considered may differ de-
or systematic reviews/meta-analyses of such ob-
pending on circumstances
servational studies (with no concern about internal
or patients’ or societal
validity or external generalizability of the results)
values.
Moderate-quality evidence
Evidence from nonrandomized diagnostic accuracy
The degree to which the diag-
studies (cross-sectional or cohort), with one or more
nostic test is seriously con-
possible limitations causing minor concern about
sidered may differ depending
internal validity or external generalizability of the
on individual patients’/
results
practice circumstances or
patients’ or societal values.
Low-quality evidence
Evidence from nonrandomized diagnostic accuracy
Alternative options may be
studies with one or more important limitations
equally reasonable.
causing serious concern about internal validity or
external generalizability of the results.
Insufficient
Evidence may be of such poor quality, conflicting,
Insufficient evidence exists to
lacking (i.e., studies not done), or not externally
recommend for or against
generalizable to the target clinical population such
routinely offering the diag-
that the estimate of the true effect of the test is
nostic test.
uncertain and does not permit a reasonable
conclusion to be made.
methodologic elements: consecutive recruitment of patients
the accuracy in establishing a definitive diagnosis, largely
representative of clinical practice, use of an appropriate ref-
relating to the diagnosis of new or recurrent malignancy
erence gold standard, directness of evidence (e.g., target
(unless otherwise specified). Diagnostic tests or risk stratifi-
population of interest, testing procedures representative of
cation systems used for estimation of prognosis were also
clinical practice, and relevant outcomes), precision of diag-
appraised using the diagnostic test grading system. An im-
nostic accuracy measures (e.g., width of confidence intervals
portant limitation of our diagnostic test appraisal system is
for estimates such as sensitivity, specificity), and consistency
that it does not specifically examine the clinical utility of a
of results among studies using the same test (Tables 3 and 4).
test in improving long-term health outcomes by execution of
In the majority of circumstances (unless otherwise specified),
the test as part of an intended therapeutic strategy (unless
the outcome of interest for the diagnostic test was the diag-
specifically noted). However, as much as possible, we tried to
nosis of thyroid cancer (relative to a histologic gold stan-
separate recommendations on the diagnostic accuracy of a
dard). However, prognostic studies were also graded using
test from therapeutic management based on the test result,
the diagnostic study critical appraisal framework. In terms of
with the latter grading being more rigorous and based on
strength of recommendation for use of diagnostic studies, we
longer term outcomes (whenever possible). It is important to
modeled our approach on the ACP system for therapeutic
note that according to our diagnostic test grading system, a
studies, as previously described, but the target outcome was
body of well-executed nonrandomized diagnostic accuracy
6
HAUGEN ET AL.
studies could be considered high-quality evidence; yet, a
sions were regularly reviewed by all panel members in the
therapeutic strategy incorporating the use of the diagnostic
form of a tracked changes draft manuscript and teleconfer-
test would require one or more well-executed randomized
ences. The draft document continued to be revised until no
controlled trials (RCTs) to be considered high-quality evi-
further suggestions for further revisions were requested by
dence. In developing and applying our diagnostic test critical
any panel members. Thus, general consensus on acceptability
appraisal system, we considered American societal values,
of recommendations and manuscript text was achieved, with
relating to the importance of informing patients about po-
the fundamental understanding that not all recommendations
tentially helpful tests developed for their clinical situation
may be feasible in all practice settings.
(with counseling on relevant limitations) and the role of
Formal stakeholder input in development of these guide-
patients in informed, shared decision-making relating to
lines was sought from ATA membership in an online survey
diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. Such input was based
distributed in October 2011. Thyroid cancer survivor group
on thoughtful consideration of stakeholder input, including
leadership input was sought from three North American
input from physician stakeholders who were committee
thyroid cancer groups via e-mail correspondence in January
members. Because this was a preliminary pilot utilization of
to March of 2012. We also reviewed any letters, editorials, or
this diagnostic test critical appraisal system by our group, we
reviews of the 2009 iteration of the guidelines (25) that
have labeled recommendations using this system in the
were collected by the current Chair of the committee. Pre-
manuscript (diagnostic test recommendation). Moreover, we
publication verbal feedback on some of the key guideline
anticipate that the future iterations of these guidelines will
recommendations was received at a formal Satellite Sym-
likely incorporate further refinements to the system, or even
posium held in conjunction with the Endocrine Society
possible adoption of another system, if it is superior and
meeting in Chicago on June 19, 2014. The guideline man-
feasible to execute by contributing physicians.
uscript was reviewed and approved by the ATA Board
Prior to initiating the reviews, all task force members were
of Directors, then made available to the ATA membership
provided written and verbal group advice on conducting
for review and comments in September 2014. Substantive
electronic literature searches, critical appraisal of articles,
comments were received from 33 members representing
and rationale for formulating strength of recommendations
endocrinology, surgery, pathology, and nuclear medicine.
from a panel member with epidemiology and systematic re-
Feedback and suggestions were formally discussed by the
view expertise (via e-mail documents, a teleconference
panel, and revisions were made to the manuscript prior to
meeting on February 21, 2012). For each question, a primary
journal submission. The organization of management guide-
reviewer performed a literature search, appraised relevant
line recommendations is shown in Table 5.
literature, generated recommendations, accompanying text,
The medical opinions expressed here are those of the au-
and a relevant bibliography. This was then reviewed by the
thors, and the committee had complete editorial indepen-
secondary reviewer, revised as needed, and presented for
dence from the ATA in writing the guidelines. No funding
review by the entire panel. Feedback and suggestions for
was received by individual committee members from the
revisions from the Chair and panel members were obtained
ATA or industry for work on these guidelines. Competing
via e-mail, regularly scheduled teleconferences, and face-to-
interests of all committee members were reviewed at incep-
face meetings held in conjunction with scientific meetings.
tion of the group, yearly, and upon completion of the
Once the manuscript was drafted, all suggestions for revi-
guidelines and are included with this document.
Table 5. Organization of the 2015 ATA Guidelines for Thyroid Nodules
and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer
Page
Location key
Sections and subsections
Itema
10
[A1]
THYROID NODULE GUIDELINES
10
[A2]
What is the role of thyroid cancer screening in people with
R1b
familial follicular cell–derived DTC?b
10
[A3]
What is the appropriate laboratory and imaging evaluation for
patients with clinically or incidentally discovered thyroid
nodules?
10
[A4]
Serum thyrotropin measurement
R2
11
[A5]
Serum thyroglobulin measurement
R3
11
[A6]
Serum calcitonin measurement
R4
11
[A7]
[18F]Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographyb
R5b
12
[A8]
Thyroid sonography
R6
12
[A9]
US for FNA decision-making
R7
12
[A10]
Recommendations for diagnostic FNA of a thyroid nodule based on
R8c F1c, F2c, T6c
sonographic patternc
16
[A11]
What is the role of FNA, cytology interpretation, and molecular
R9c, F1c, T7c
testing in patients with thyroid nodules?c
17
[A12]
Nondiagnostic cytology
R10
17
[A13]
Benign cytology
R11
18
[A14]
Malignant cytology
R12
19
[A15]
Indeterminate cytology (AUS/FLUS, FN, SUSP)c
(continued)
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
7
Table 5. (Continued)
Page
Location key
Sections and subsections
Itema
19
[A16]
What are the principles of the molecular testing of FNA
R13–14
samples?b
21
[A17]
AUS/FLUS cytologyc
R15c
22
[A18]
Follicular neoplasm/suspicious for follicular neoplasm cytology c
R16c
23
[A19]
Suspicious for malignancy cytologyc
R17c
23
[A20]
What is the utility of 18FDG -PET scanning to predict malignant
R18b
or benign disease when FNA cytology is indeterminate (AUS/
FLUS, FN, SUSP)?b
23
[A21]
What is the appropriate operation for cytologically indeterminate
R19–20c
thyroid nodules?c
25
[A22]
How should multinodular thyroid glands (i.e., two or more
R21–22
clinically relevant nodules) be evaluated for malignancy?
25
[A23]
What are the best methods for long-term follow-up of patients
with thyroid nodules?
25
[A24]
Recommendations for initial follow-up of nodules with benign FNA
R23A–Cc
cytologyc
25
[A25]
Recommendation for follow-up of nodules with two benign FNA
R23Db
cytology resultsb
26
[A26]
Follow-up for nodules that do not meet FNA criteriab
R24b
27
[A27]
What is the role of medical or surgical therapy for benign thyroid
R25–29
nodules?
27
[A28]
How should thyroid nodules in pregnant women be managed?
27
[A29]
FNA for thyroid nodules discovered during pregnancy
R30
28
[A30]
Approaches to pregnant patients with malignant or indeterminate
R31
cytology
28
[B1]
DIFFERENTIATED THYROID CANCER: INITIAL
MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
29
[B2]
Goals of initial therapy of DTC
29
[B3]
What is the role of preoperative staging with diagnostic imaging
and laboratory tests?
29
[B4]
Neck imaging—ultrasound
R32 F3, T6, T8b
30
[B5]
Neck imaging—CT/MRI/PETc
R33c
31
[B6]
Measurement of serum Tg and anti-Tg antibodies
R34
31
[B7]
Operative approach for a biopsy diagnostic for follicular cell–derived
R35c
malignancyc
33
[B8]
Lymph node dissection
R36–37, F3
35
[B9]
Completion thyroidectomy
R38
35
[B10]
What is the appropriate perioperative approach to voice and
parathyroid issues?b
35
[B11]
Preoperative care communicationb
R39b
35
[B12]
Preoperative voice assessmentb
R40–41b, T9b
36
[B13]
Intraoperative voice and parathyroid managementb
R42–43b
37
[B14]
Postoperative careb
R44–45b
37
[B15]
What are the basic principles of histopathologic evaluation of
R46b
thyroidectomy samples?b
40
[B16]
What is the role of postoperative staging systems and risk
stratification in the management of DTC?
40
[B17]
Postoperative staging
R47
40
[B18]
AJCC/UICC TNM staging
T10
41
[B19]
What initial stratification system should be used to estimate
R48c, T11b, T12c
the risk of persistent/recurrent disease?c
43
[B20]
Potential impact of specific clinico-pathologic features on the risk
estimates in PTCb
44
[B21]
Potential impact of BRAFV600E and other mutations on risk of
estimates in PTCb
45
[B22]
Potential impact of postoperative serum Tg on risk estimatesb
46
[B23]
Proposed modifications to the 2009 ATA initial risk stratification
T12c
systemb
46
[B24]
Risk of recurrence as a continuum of riskb
F4b
46
[B25]
How should initial risk estimates be modified over time?b
R49
47
[B26]
Proposed terminology to classify response to therapy and clinical
(continued)
8
HAUGEN ET AL.
Table 5. (Continued)
Page
Location key
Sections and subsections
Itema
implicationsb
47
[B27]
Excellent response: no clinical, biochemical, or structural evidence of
T13b
disease after initial therapy (remission, NED)b
50
[B28]
Biochemical incomplete response: abnormal Tg values in the absence
T13b
of localizable diseaseb
51
[B29]
Structural incomplete response: persistent or newly identified loco-
T13b
regional or distant metastasesb
52
[B30]
Indeterminate response: biochemical or structural findings that
T13b
cannot be classified as either benign or malignant (acceptable
response)b
52
[B31]
Using risk stratification to guide disease surveillance and therapeutic
management decisionsb
53
[B32]
Should postoperative disease status be considered in decision-
R50
making for RAI therapy for patients with DTC?
53
[B33]
Utility of postoperative serum Tg in clinical decision-making
54
[B34]
Potential role of postoperative US in conjunction with postoperative
serum Tg in clinical decision-making
54
[B35]
Role of postoperative radioisotope diagnostic scanning in clinical
decision-making
55
[B36]
What is the role of RAI (including remnant ablation, adjuvant
R51
therapy, or therapy persistent disease) after thyroidectomy in
T14
the primary management of differentiated thyroid cancer?
58
[B37]
What is the role of molecular marker status in therapeutic RAI
R52b
decision-making?b
58
[B38]
How long does thyroid hormone need to be withdrawn in
R53
preparation for RAI remnant ablation/treatment or diagnostic
scanning?
59
[B39]
Can rhTSH (Thyrogen) be used as an alternative to thyroxine
R54
withdrawal for remnant ablation or adjuvant therapy in
patients who have undergone near-total or total
thyroidectomy?
60
[B40]
What activity of 131I should be used for remnant ablation or
R55–56c
adjuvant therapy?c
63
[B41]
Is a low-iodine diet necessary before remnant ablation?
R57
63
[B42]
Should a posttherapy scan be performed following remnant
R58
ablation or adjuvant therapy?
64
[B43]
Early management of DTC after initial therapy
64
[B44]
What is the appropriate degree of initial TSH suppression?
R59
65
[B45]
Is there a role for adjunctive external beam radiation or
chemotherapy?
65
[B46]
External beam radiation
R60
65
[B47]
Systemic adjuvant therapy
R61
65
[C1]
DTC: LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT AND ADVANCED
CANCER MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
65
[C2]
What are the appropriate features of long-term management?
66
[C3]
What are the criteria for absence of persistent tumor (excellent
response)?
66
[C4]
What are the appropriate methods for following patients after
initial therapy?
66
[C5]
What is the role of serum Tg measurement in the follow-up of DTC?c
R62–63c
66
[C6]
Serum Tg measurement and clinical utility
68
[C7]
Anti-Tg antibodies
68
[C8]
What is the role of serum Tg measurement in patients who have
R64
not undergone RAI remnant ablation?
69
[C9]
What is the role of US and other imaging techniques (RAI
SPECT/CT, CT, MRI, PET-CT) during follow-up?
69
[C10]
Cervical ultrasonography
R65
69
[C11]
Diagnostic whole-body RAI scans
R66–67
70
[C12]
18FDG-PET scanning
R68
71
[C13]
CT and MRIb
R69b
72
[C14]
Using ongoing risk stratification (response to therapy) to guide
disease long-term surveillance and therapeutic management
decisionsb
(continued)
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
9
Table 5. (Continued)
Page
Location key
Sections and subsections
Itema
72
[C15]
What is the role of TSH suppression during thyroid hormone
R70c
therapy in the long-term follow-up of DTC?c
T15b
74
[C16]
What is the most appropriate management of DTC patients with
metastatic disease?
74
[C17]
What is the optimal directed approach to patients with suspected
R71
structural neck recurrence?
74
[C18]
Nodal size threshold
75
[C19]
Extent of nodal surgery
75
[C20]
Ethanol injectionb
75
[C21]
Radiofrequency or laser ablationb
75
[C22]
Other therapeutic optionsb
76
[C23]
What is the surgical management of aerodigestive invasion?
R72
76
[C24]
How should RAI therapy be considered for loco-regional or
distant metastatic disease?
76
[C25]
Administered activity of 131I for loco-regional or metastatic diseasec
R73c
77
[C26]
Use of rhTSH (Thyrogen) to prepare patients for 131I therapy for
R74–75
loco-regional or metastatic disease
77
[C27]
Use of lithium in 131I therapy
R76
77
[C28]
How should distant metastatic disease to various organs be
treated?
78
[C29]
Treatment of pulmonary metastases
R77–78
78
[C30]
RAI treatment of bone metastases
R79
79
[C31]
When should empiric RAI therapy be considered for Tg-positive,
R80–82
RAI diagnostic scan–negative patients?
79
[C32]
What is the management of complications of RAI therapy?
R83–85
80
[C33]
How should patients who have received RAI therapy be
R86
monitored for risk of secondary malignancies?
80
[C34]
What other testing should patients receiving RAI therapy undergo?
R87
80
[C35]
How should patients be counseled about RAI therapy and
R88–90
pregnancy, breastfeeding, and gonadal function?
81
[C36]
How is RAI-refractory DTC classified?b
R91b
82
[C37]
Which patients with metastatic thyroid cancer can be followed
R92b
without additional therapy?b
82
[C38]
What is the role for directed therapy in advanced thyroid cancer?c
R93c
84
[C39]
Treatment of brain metastases
R94
84
[C40]
Who should be considered for clinical trials?b
R95b
84
[C41]
What is the role of systemic therapy (kinase inhibitors, other
selective therapies, conventional chemotherapy,
bisphosphonates) in treating metastatic DTC?c
85
[C42]
Kinase inhibitorsb
R96b, T16b
87
[C43]
Patients for whom first-line kinase inhibitor therapy failsb
R97b
87
[C44]
Management of toxicities from kinase inhibitor therapyb
R98b, T17b
87
[C45]
Other novel agentsb
R99
87
[C46]
Cytotoxic chemotherapy
R100
88
[C47]
Bone-directed agentsc
R101c
89
[D1]
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
89
[D2]
Optimizing molecular markers for diagnosis, prognosis, and
therapeutic targets
89
[D3]
Active surveillance of DTC primary tumors
90
[D4]
Improved risk stratification
90
[D5]
Improving our understanding of the risks and benefits of DTC
treatments and optimal implementation/utilization
90
[D6]
Issues with measurement of Tg and anti-Tg antibodies
90
[D7]
Management of metastatic cervical adenopathy detected on US
91
[D8]
Novel therapies for systemic RAI-refractory disease
91
[D9]
Survivorship care
aF, figure; R, recommendation; T, table.
bNew section/recommendation.
cSubstantially changed recommendation compared with 2009.
ATA, American Thyroid Association; AUS/FLUS, atypia of undetermined significance/follicular lesion of undetermined significance;
CT, computed tomography; DTC, differentiated thyroid cancer; FN, follicular neoplasm; FNA, fine-needle aspiration; 18FDG-PET,
[18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; NED, no evidence of disease; PET, positron
emission tomography; RAI, radioactive iodine (radioiodine); rhTSH, recombinant human thyrotropin; SPECT/CT, single photon emission
computed tomography–computed tomography; SUSP, suspicious for malignancy; Tg, thyroglobulin; TSH, thyrotropin; US, ultrasound.
10
HAUGEN ET AL.
[A1] THYROID NODULE GUIDELINES
true familial disease. Appearance of the disease at an earlier age
has also been found by Moses et al. (36). More advanced disease
A thyroid nodule is a discrete lesion within the thyroid gland
at presentation and slightly worse outcomes have been reported
that is radiologically distinct from the surrounding thyroid pa-
in familial cases by Capezzone et al. (35). More frequent mul-
renchyma. Some palpable lesions may not correspond to distinct
ticentricity has been reported by Ito et al. (37), but disease-free
radiologic abnormalities (32). Such abnormalities do not meet
and overall survival were similar to sporadic cases. In the study
the strict definition for thyroid nodules. Nonpalpable nodules
by Park et al. (38), familial follicular cell–derived DTC patients
detected on US or other anatomic imaging studies are termed
with parent–offspring relationship were found to have a higher
incidentally discovered nodules or ‘‘incidentalomas.’’ Non-
recurrence rate compared with sporadic cases and the second
palpable nodules have the same risk of malignancy as do so-
generation had even higher rates compared with the first gen-
nographically confirmed palpable nodules of the same size (33).
eration. Mazeh et al. (39) found that familial DTC patients had
Generally, only nodules >1 cm should be evaluated, since they
more aggressive disease compared with sporadic cases re-
have a greater potential to be clinically significant cancers.
gardless of the number of family members affected. In contrast,
Occasionally, there may be nodules <1 cm that require further
Robenshtok et al. (40) found that staging at diagnosis and out-
evaluation because of clinical symptoms or associated lymph-
comes were not different in familial DTC patients compared
adenopathy. In very rare cases, some nodules <1 cm lack these
with sporadic DTC patients. Syndromes associated with DTC
sonographic and clinical warning signs yet may nonetheless
(e.g., PTEN [phosphatase and tensin homolog] hamartoma tu-
cause future morbidity and mortality. This remains highly un-
mor syndrome [Cowden’s disease], familial adenomatous
likely, and given the unfavorable cost/benefit considerations,
polyposis [FAP], Carney complex, multiple endocrine neopla-
attempts to diagnose and treat all such small thyroid cancers in
sia [MEN] 2, Werner syndrome/progeria) in a first-degree rel-
an effort to prevent exceedingly rare outcomes is deemed to
ative, warrant screening based on various components of that
cause more harm than good. In general, the guiding clinical
syndrome (41).
strategy acknowledges that most thyroid nodules are low risk,
It is not possible to speculate on the impact of screening in
and many thyroid cancers pose minimal risk to human health
preventing or reducing recurrence and deaths, since no in-
and can be effectively treated.
terventional screening programs have ever been reported in
at-risk family members. Patients with familial DTC should
[A2] What is the role of thyroid cancer screening
have a careful history and directed neck examination as a part
in people with familial follicular cell–derived DTC?
of routine health maintenance. One should also consider
thyroid cancer syndromes as noted above (41).
&
RECOMMENDATION 1
Screening people with familial follicular cell–derived
[A3] What is the appropriate laboratory and imaging
DTC may lead to an earlier diagnosis of thyroid cancer, but
evaluation for patients with clinically or incidentally
the panel cannot recommend for or against US screening
discovered thyroid nodules?
since there is no evidence that this would lead to reduced
morbidity or mortality.
[A4] Serum thyrotropin measurement
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
&
RECOMMENDATION 2
Screening programs for patients at risk of oncological
disease are usually advocated based on the following evi-
(A) Serum thyrotropin (TSH) should be measured during
dence: (a) a clear demonstration that the patient is indeed at
the initial evaluation of a patient with a thyroid nodule.
risk; (b) demonstration that screening allows the detection
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
of the disease at an earlier stage; (c) early diagnosis has
an impact on subsequent outcome, both recurrence and
(B) If the serum TSH is subnormal, a radionuclide (pref-
survival.
erably 123I) thyroid scan should be performed. (Strong
Family members of patients with nonmedullary DTC may be
recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
considered at risk based on epidemiological evidence showing
(C) If the serum TSH is normal or elevated, a radionuclide
that 5%–10% of DTCs have a familial occurrence. However, in
scan should not be performed as the initial imaging evaluation.
most of the pedigrees only two members are affected. There is
controversy on whether two family members are sufficient to
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
define a real familial disease rather than a fortuitous association.
The probability estimates reported by Charkes (34) suggests that
With the discovery of a thyroid nodule, a complete history
when only two first-degree family members are affected, the
and physical examination focusing on the thyroid gland and
probability that the disease is sporadic is 62%. This probability
adjacent cervical lymph nodes should be performed. Perti-
decreases when the number of affected family members is three
nent historical factors predicting malignancy include a his-
or more. In contrast, the study by Capezzone et al. (35), which
tory of childhood head and neck radiation therapy, total body
was statistically adjusted to minimize risk of ‘‘insufficient
radiation for bone marrow transplantation (42), exposure to
follow-up bias,’’ demonstrates that even when only two family
ionizing radiation from fallout in childhood or adolescence
members are affected, the disease displays the features of ‘‘ge-
(43), familial thyroid carcinoma, or thyroid cancer syndrome
netic anticipation’’ (occurrence of the disease at an earlier age
(e.g., PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome [Cowden’s dis-
and with more aggressive presentation in the subsequent gener-
ease], FAP, Carney complex, Werner syndrome/progeria, or
ation compared with the first generation), which is considered
MEN 2, a risk for medullary thyroid cancer [MTC]) in a first-
good evidence for a distinct clinical entity possibly representing
degree relative, rapid nodule growth, and/or hoarseness.
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
11
Pertinent physical findings suggesting possible malignancy
cost-effective analysis, the task force cannot recommend for
include vocal cord paralysis, cervical lymphadenopathy, and
or against the routine measurement of serum calcitonin as a
fixation of the nodule to surrounding tissue.
screening test in patients with thyroid nodules, although there
With the discovery of a thyroid nodule >1 cm in any di-
was not uniform agreement on this recommendation. There
ameter, a serum TSH level should be obtained. If the serum
was, however, agreement that serum calcitonin may be
TSH is subnormal, a radionuclide thyroid scan should be
considered in the subgroup of patients in whom an elevated
obtained to document whether the nodule is hyperfunctioning
calcitonin may change the diagnostic or surgical approach
(‘‘hot,’’ i.e., tracer uptake is greater than the surrounding
(i.e., patients considered for less than total thyroidectomy,
normal thyroid), isofunctioning (‘‘warm,’’ i.e., tracer uptake
patients with suspicious cytology not consistent with PTC). If
is equal to the surrounding thyroid), or nonfunctioning
the unstimulated serum calcitonin determination has been
(‘‘cold,’’ i.e., has uptake less than the surrounding thyroid
obtained and the level is greater than 50–100 pg/mL, a diag-
tissue) (44). Since hyperfunctioning nodules rarely harbor
nosis of MTC is common (58).
malignancy, if one is found that corresponds to the nodule in
There is emerging evidence that a calcitonin measure-
question, no cytologic evaluation is necessary. If overt or
ment from a thyroid nodule fine-needle aspiration (FNA)
subclinical hyperthyroidism is present, additional evaluation
washout may be helpful in the preoperative evaluation of
is required. A higher serum TSH level, even within the upper
patients with a modestly elevated basal serum calcitonin
part of the reference range, is associated with increased risk
(20–100 pg/mL) (59).
of malignancy in a thyroid nodule, as well as more advanced
stage thyroid cancer (45,46).
[A7] [18F]Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission
tomography scan
[A5] Serum thyroglobulin measurement
&
RECOMMENDATION 5
&
RECOMMENDATION 3
(A) Focal [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission to-
Routine measurement of serum thyroglobulin (Tg) for
mography (18FDG-PET) uptake within a sonographically
initial evaluation of thyroid nodules is not recommended.
confirmed thyroid nodule conveys an increased risk of
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
thyroid cancer, and FNA is recommended for those nod-
ules ‡1 cm.
Serum Tg levels can be elevated in most thyroid diseases
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
and are an insensitive and nonspecific test for thyroid cancer
(47–49).
B) Diffuse 18FDG-PET uptake, in conjunction with so-
nographic and clinical evidence of chronic lymphocytic
[A6] Serum calcitonin measurement
thyroiditis, does not require further imaging or FNA.
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
&
RECOMMENDATION 4
The panel cannot recommend either for or against routine
18FDG-PET is increasingly performed during the evalua-
measurement of serum calcitonin in patients with thyroid
tion of patients with both malignant and nonmalignant ill-
nodules.
ness. While 18FDG-PET imaging is not recommended for the
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
evaluation of patients with newly detected thyroid nodules
or thyroidal illness, the incidental detection of abnormal
The utility of serum calcitonin has been evaluated in a
thyroid uptake may nonetheless be encountered. Importantly,
series of prospective, nonrandomized studies (50–54). These
incidental 18FDG-PET uptake in the thyroid gland can be
data suggest that the use of routine serum calcitonin for
either focal or diffuse. Focal 18FDG-PET uptake in the thy-
screening may detect C-cell hyperplasia and MTC at an
roid is incidentally detected in 1%–2% of patients, while an
earlier stage, and overall survival consequently may be
additional 2% of patients demonstrate diffuse thyroid uptake
improved. However, most studies relied on pentagastrin
(60–62).
stimulation testing to increase specificity. This drug is not
Focal thyroid uptake most often corresponds to a clinically
available in the United States, Canada, and some other
relevant thyroid nodule, and US examination is thus rec-
countries, and there remain unresolved issues of sensitivity,
ommended to define thyroid anatomy. Importantly, focal
specificity, assay performance, cut-offs using calcium stim-
18FDG-PET uptake increases malignancy risk in an affected
ulation (55), and cost effectiveness. Two retrospective stud-
nodule, and therefore clinical evaluation and FNA of nodules
ies have shown improved survival in patients diagnosed with
‡1 cm is recommended. 18FDG-PET positive thyroid nodules
MTC after routine calcitonin testing compared with historical
<1 cm that do not meet FNA criteria (see Recommendation 8)
controls (53,56), but they were unable to show a decreased
can be monitored similarly to thyroid nodules with high-risk
number of MTC-related deaths. A cost-effectiveness analysis
sonographic patterns that do not meet FNA criteria (see Rec-
suggested that calcitonin screening would be cost effective in
ommendation 24A). A recent meta-analysis confirmed that
the United States (57). However, prevalence estimates of
approximately one in three (*35%) 18FDG-PET positive
MTC in this analysis included patients with C-cell hyper-
thyroid nodules proved to be cancerous (60), with higher
plasia and microMTC, which have uncertain clinical signif-
mean maximum standardized uptake value in malignant
icance. Based on the retrospective nature of the survival data,
compared to benign nodules (6.9 vs. 4.8, p < 0.001). In con-
unresolved issues of assay performance, lack of availability
trast, diffuse thyroid uptake most often represents benign
of pentagastrin in North America, and potential biases in the
disease corresponding to inflammatory uptake in the setting
12
HAUGEN ET AL.
of Hashimoto’s disease or other diffuse thyroidal illness.
lower rates of both nondiagnostic and false-negative cytology
However, if detected, diffuse 18FDG-PET uptake in the
from FNA procedures performed using US guidance compared
thyroid should also prompt sonographic examination to en-
to palpation (68,69). Therefore, for nodules with a higher
sure there is no evidence of clinically relevant nodularity.
likelihood of either a nondiagnostic cytology (>25%–50%
Most patients with diffuse 18FDG-PET uptake demonstrate
cystic component) (64) or sampling error (difficult to palpate or
diffuse heterogeneity on sonographic examination, and no
posteriorly located nodules), US-guided FNA is preferred. If
further intervention or FNA is required. It is appropriate to
the diagnostic US confirms the presence of a predominantly
evaluate thyroid function in these patients.
solid nodule corresponding to what is palpated, the FNA may
be performed using palpation or US guidance.
[A8] Thyroid sonography
[A10] Recommendations for diagnostic FNA of a thyroid
&
RECOMMENDATION 6
nodule based on sonographic pattern
Thyroid sonography with survey of the cervical lymph
Figure 1 provides an algorithm for evaluation and man-
nodes should be performed in all patients with known or
agement of patients with thyroid nodules based on sono-
suspected thyroid nodules.
graphic pattern and FNA cytology, which is discussed in
subsequent sections.
(Strong recommendation, High-quality evidence)
&
RECOMMENDATION 8
Diagnostic thyroid/neck US should be performed in all
I. Thyroid nodule diagnostic FNA is recommended for
patients with a suspected thyroid nodule, nodular goiter, or
(Fig. 2, Table 6):
radiographic abnormality suggesting a thyroid nodule inci-
dentally detected on another imaging study (e.g., computed
(A) Nodules ‡1 cm in greatest dimension with high sus-
tomography [CT] or magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]
picion sonographic pattern.
or thyroidal uptake on 18FDG-PET scan) (www.aium.org/
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
resources/guidelines/thyroid.pdf). Thyroid US can answer
the following questions: Is there truly a nodule that corre-
(B) Nodules ‡1 cm in greatest dimension with intermedi-
sponds to an identified abnormality? How large is the nodule?
ate suspicion sonographic pattern.
What is the nodule’s pattern of US imaging characteristics? Is
suspicious cervical lymphadenopathy present? Is the nodule
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
greater than 50% cystic? Is the nodule located posteriorly in
(C) Nodules ‡1.5 cm in greatest dimension with low sus-
the thyroid gland? These last two features might decrease the
picion sonographic pattern.
accuracy of FNA biopsy performed with palpation (63,64).
Ultrasound should evaluate the following: thyroid paren-
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
chyma (homogeneous or heterogeneous) and gland size; size,
II. Thyroid nodule diagnostic FNA may be considered for
location, zand sonographic characteristics of any nodule(s);
(Fig. 2, Table 6):
the presence or absence of any suspicious cervical lymph
nodes in the central or lateral compartments. The US report
(D) Nodules ‡2 cm in greatest dimension with very low
should convey nodule size (in three dimensions) and location
suspicion sonographic pattern (e.g., spongiform). Ob-
(e.g., right upper lobe) and a description of the nodule’s so-
servation without FNA is also a reasonable option.
nographic features including composition (solid, cystic pro-
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
portion, or spongiform), echogenicity, margins, presence and
type of calcifications, and shape if taller than wide, and
III. Thyroid nodule diagnostic FNA is not required for
vascularity. The pattern of sonographic features associated
(Fig. 2, Table 6):
with a nodule confers a risk of malignancy, and combined
with nodule size, guides FNA decision-making (65,66) (see
(E) Nodules that do not meet the above criteria.
Recommendation 8).
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
In the subset of patients with low serum TSH levels who have
undergone radionuclide thyroid scintigraphy suggesting nodu-
(F) Nodules that are purely cystic.
larity, US should also be performed to evaluate both the pres-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
ence of nodules concordant with the hyperfunctioning areas on
the scan, which do not require FNA, as well as other nonfunc-
Thyroid US has been widely used to stratify the risk of
tioning nodules that meet sonographic criteria for FNA (67).
malignancy in thyroid nodules, and aid decision-making
about whether FNA is indicated. Studies consistently report
[A9] US for FNA decision-making
that several US gray scale features in multivariate analyses
are associated with thyroid cancer, the majority of which are
&
RECOMMENDATION 7
PTC. These include the presence of microcalcifications,
FNA is the procedure of choice in the evaluation of thyroid
nodule hypoechogenicity compared with the surrounding
nodules, when clinically indicated.
thyroid or strap muscles, irregular margins (defined as either
infiltrative, microlobulated, or spiculated), and a shape taller
(Strong recommendation, High-quality evidence)
than wide measured on a transverse view. Features with the
FNA is the most accurate and cost-effective method for
highest specificities (median >90%) for thyroid cancer are
evaluating thyroid nodules. Retrospective studies have reported
microcalcifications, irregular margins, and tall shape,
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
13
FIG. 1.
Algorithm for evaluation and management of patients with thyroid nodules based on US pattern and FNA
cytology. R, recommendation in text.
although the sensitivities are significantly lower for any single
value for malignancy in multivariate logistic regression model
feature (70–77). It is important to note that poorly defined
including gray-scale features (72). Two other studies and a
margins, meaning the sonographic interface between the nod-
meta-analysis with higher proportions of follicular thyroid
ule and the surrounding thyroid parenchyma is difficult to de-
cancer (FTC) (10%–22%) have shown that intranodular vas-
lineate, are not equivalent to irregular margins. An irregular
cularity was correlated with malignancy (66,74,81). FTC ex-
margin indicates the demarcation between nodule and paren-
hibits other differences in sonographic features compared to
chyma is clearly visible but demonstrates an irregular, infil-
PTC. These tumors are more likely to be iso- to hyperechoic,
trative or spiculated course. Up to 55% of benign nodules are
noncalcified, round (width greater than anterioposterior di-
hypoechoic compared to thyroid parenchyma, making nodule
mension) nodules with regular smooth margins (82). Similarly,
hypoechogenicity less specific. In addition, subcentimeter be-
the follicular variant of papillary cancer (FVPTC) is also more
nign nodules are more likely to be hypoechoic than larger
likely than conventional PTC to have this same appearance as
nodules (71). Multivariable analyses confirm that the proba-
FTC (79). Distant metastases are rarely observed arising from
bility of cancer is higher for nodules with either microlobulated
follicular cancers <2 cm in diameter, which therefore justifies a
margins or microcalcifications than for hypoechoic solid nod-
higher size cutoff for hyperechoic nodules (83).
ules lacking these features (70). Macrocalcifications within a
The vast majority (82%–91%) of thyroid cancers are solid
nodule, if combined with microcalcifications, confer the same
(70,73,75,77,84). Of 360 consecutively surgically removed
malignancy risk as microcalcifications alone (70,74). However,
thyroid cancers at the Mayo clinic, 88% were solid or mini-
the presence of this type of intranodular macrocalcification
mally cystic (<5%), 9% were <50% cystic, and only 3% were
alone is not consistently associated with thyroid cancer (78). On
more than 50% cystic (85). Therefore, FNA decision-making
the other hand, a nodule that has interrupted peripheral calci-
for partially cystic thyroid nodules must be tempered by
fications, in association with a soft tissue rim outside the cal-
their lower malignant risk. In addition, evidence linking
cification, is highly likely to be malignant, and the associated
sonographic features with malignancy in this subgroup of
pathology may demonstrate tumor invasion in the area of dis-
nodules is less robust, originating from univariate rather
rupted calcification (79,80).
than multivariate analyses. However, an eccentric rather
In a recent study where 98% of the cancers were PTC,
than concentric position of the solid component along the
intranodular vascularity did not have independent predictive
cyst wall, an acute rather than obtuse angle interface of the
FIG. 2.
ATA nodule sonographic patterns and risk of malignancy.
Table 6. Sonographic Patterns, Estimated Risk of Malignancy, and Fine-Needle Aspiration
Guidance for Thyroid Nodules
Estimated risk
FNA size cutoff
Sonographic pattern
US features
of malignancy, %
(largest dimension)
High suspicion
Solid hypoechoic nodule or solid hypoechoic
>70–90a
Recommend FNA at ‡1 cm
component of a partially cystic nodule
with one or more of the following features:
irregular margins (infiltrative, microlobu-
lated), microcalcifications, taller than wide
shape, rim calcifications with small extru-
sive soft tissue component, evidence
of ETE
Intermediate suspicion
Hypoechoic solid nodule with smooth mar-
10–20
Recommend FNA at ‡1 cm
gins without microcalcifications, ETE,
or taller than wide shape
Low suspicion
Isoechoic or hyperechoic solid nodule, or
5–10
Recommend FNA at ‡1.5 cm
partially cystic nodule with eccentric solid
areas, without microcalcification, irregular
margin or ETE, or taller than wide shape.
Very low suspicion
Spongiform or partially cystic nodules with-
<3
Consider FNA at ‡2 cm
out any of the sonographic features de-
Observation without FNA
scribed in low, intermediate, or high
is also a reasonable option
suspicion patterns
Benign
Purely cystic nodules (no solid component)
<1
No biopsyb
US-guided FNA is recommended for cervical lymph nodes that are sonographically suspicious for thyroid cancer (see Table 7).
aThe estimate is derived from high volume centers, the overall risk of malignancy may be lower given the interobserver variability in
sonography.
bAspiration of the cyst may be considered for symptomatic or cosmetic drainage.
ETE, extrathyroidal extension.
14
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
15
solid component and cyst, and the presence of micro-
with those over age 60 (5.9% vs. 2.2% for size increase; 5.3%
calcifications consistently confer a higher risk of malignancy
vs. 0.4% for new nodal metastases, p < 0.05). Thus although a
(85–87). Other findings such as lobulated margins or increased
sonographically suspicious subcentimeter thyroid nodule
vascularity of the solid portion are risk factors that are not as
without evidence of extrathyroidal extension or sono-
robust (86,87). However, a spongiform appearance of mixed
graphically suspicious lymph nodes may be observed with
cystic solid nodules is strongly correlated with benignity
close sonographic follow-up of the nodule and cervical
(66,70,71,88). A spongiform appearance is defined as the ag-
lymph nodes, rather than pursuing immediate FNA, patient
gregation of multiple microcystic components in more than
age and preference may modify decision-making (95).
50% of the volume of the nodule (71). Spongiform and other
mixed cystic solid nodules may exhibit bright reflectors on US
Intermediate suspicion [malignancy risk 10%–20%
imaging, caused by colloid crystals or posterior acoustic en-
(89,90,94)].
Intermediate suspicion of malignancy is at-
hancement of the back wall of a microcystic area. These may
tached to a hypoechoic solid nodule with a smooth regular
be confused with microcalcifications by less proficient sono-
margin, but without microcalcifications, extrathyroidal ex-
graphers, and a recent meta-analysis confirmed that operator
tension, or taller than wide shape (Fig. 2, Table 6). This
experience is correlated with accurate evaluation of internal
appearance has the highest sensitivity (60%–80%) for PTC,
calcifications (66). Therefore, because of potential for mis-
but a lower specificity than the preceding high suspicion
classification, FNA may still be considered for nodules inter-
pattern, and fine-needle biopsy should be considered for these
preted as spongiform, but with a higher size cutoff. Lastly, pure
nodules ‡1 cm to refute malignancy.
cysts, although rare (<2% of thyroid lesions), are highly likely
to be benign (66,89,90).
Low suspicion [malignancy risk 5%–10% (89,90,94)].
Given the nuances in sonographic appearances of different
Isoechoic or hyperechoic solid nodule, or partially cystic
thyroid cancer histologies, as well as the challenges posed by
nodule with eccentric uniformly solid areas without micro-
partially cystic nodules, some authors have suggested risk
calcifications, irregular margin or extrathyroidal extension,
stratification based upon a constellation of sonographic fea-
or taller than wide shape prompts low suspicion for malig-
tures (89–91). In the absence of sonographically suspicious
nancy (Fig. 2, Table 6). Only about 15%–20% of thyroid
cervical lymph nodes, features associated with the highest
cancers are iso- or hyperechoic on US, and these are generally
risk for thyroid cancer can be used to triage smaller nodules
the follicular variant of PTC or FTCs (71). Fewer than 20% of
for fine-needle biopsy, whereas nodules with sonographic
these nodules are partially cystic. Therefore, these appear-
appearance suggesting lower risk might be considered for
ances are associated with a lower probability of malignancy
fine-needle biopsy at a larger size as determined by maximal
and observation may be warranted until the size is ‡1.5 cm.
diameter (Figs. 1 and 2, Table 6). The sonographic appearance
for the vast majority of thyroid nodules can be generally
Very low suspicion [£3% (66,89,90,94)].
Spongiform or
classified in the following categories of US patterns, which
partially cystic nodules without any of the sonographic features
combine several individual sonographic characteristics. Since
described in the low, intermediate, or high suspicion patterns
the interobserver variability in reporting individual charac-
have a low risk of malignancy (<3%). If FNA is performed, the
teristics is moderate even within controlled studies (72), the
nodule should be at least 2 cm. Observation without FNA may
use of patterns exhibiting correlated sonographic features is
also be considered for nodules ‡2 cm (Fig. 2, Table 6).
more robust. Two recent studies have reported substantial
interobserver correlation for identification for nodule sono-
Benign [£1% (89,90,94)].
Purely cystic nodules are very
graphic patterns (multirater kappa statistics >0.6) (92,93).
unlikely to be malignant, and fine-needle biopsy is not indi-
cated for diagnostic purposes (Fig. 2, Table 6). Aspiration
High suspicion [malignancy risk >70%–90% (89,90,94)].
with or without ethanol ablation may be considered as a
High suspicion of malignancy is warranted with a solid hy-
therapeutic intervention if a cyst is large and symptomatic;
poechoic nodule or a solid hypoechoic component in a par-
cytology should be performed if aspiration is done.
tially cystic nodule with one or more of the following
Sonographic evaluation of the anterior cervical lymph
features: irregular margins (specifically defined as infiltra-
node compartments (central and lateral) should be performed
tive, microlobulated, or spiculated), microcalcifications, tal-
whenever thyroid nodules are detected. If US detects cervical
ler than wide shape, disrupted rim calcifications with small
lymph nodes that are sonographically suspicious for thyroid
extrusive hypoechoic soft tissue component, or evidence of
cancer (Table 7), FNA of the suspicious lymph node should
extrathyroidal extension (Fig. 2, Table 6). A nodule demon-
be performed for cytology and washout for Tg measurement
strating this US pattern is highly likely to be a PTC. Nodules
if indicated. In addition, this scenario also warrants US-
with the high suspicion pattern and measuring ‡1 cm should
guided FNA of a subcentimeter nodule that is likely to rep-
undergo diagnostic fine-needle biopsy to refute or confirm
resent the primary tumor based upon sonographic features.
malignancy. However, in the absence of evidence of extra-
Although there are several known clinical risk factors for
thyroidal extension, metastatic cervical lymph nodes, or
thyroid cancer in patients with thyroid nodules including
distant metastases, micropapillary thyroid cancers (<1 cm)
immobility with swallowing, pain, cough, voice change,
often have an indolent course, but this may depend upon
growth, lymphadenopathy, and a history of childhood radi-
patient age (95). Although no distant metastases or deaths
ation therapy (either therapeutic, such as cranial radiation in
occurred in a recent observational series of 1235 Japanese
childhood leukemia, or for benign conditions, such as en-
patients with biopsy-proven PTC, tumor growth and new
larged thymus or tonsils) or familial thyroid cancer (96),
appearance of lymph node metastases occurred more fre-
these have not been incrementally included in multivariate
quently in patients younger than 40 years of age compared
analyses of gray-scale sonographic features and thyroid
16
HAUGEN ET AL.
Table 7. Ultrasound Features of Lymph Nodes
overlap with other nodules in the anterioposterior plane. Obese
a
Predictive of Malignant Involvement
patients, those with multinodular goiters and coalescent nod-
ules, or patients in whom the nodule is posterior or inferior are
Reported
Reported
not candidates for USE. Thus, at present, USE cannot be
Sign
sensitivity, %
specificity, %
widely applied to all thyroid nodules in a similar fashion to
gray-scale or Doppler US examination. The committee
Microcalcifications
5–69
93–100
Cystic aspect
10–34
91–100
therefore believes USE (when available) may prove to be a
Peripheral vascularity
40–86
57–93
helpful tool for preoperative risk assessment in those patients
Hyperechogenicity
30–87
43–95
in whom accurate assessment can be performed. However, the
Round shape
37
70
committee cannot presently recommend its universal use or
a
widespread adoption. Importantly, the ability to perform (or
Adapted with permission from the European Thyroid Associa-
not perform) USE should not modify the recommendation for
tion guidelines for cervical ultrasound (20).
traditional gray-scale sonographic evaluation.
Finally, while most thyroid nodules meeting the preceding
cancer risk. However, given the higher pretest likelihood of
sonographic patterns and sizes should undergo FNA, we
thyroid cancer associated with these clinical risk factors,
acknowledge that a conservative approach of active surveil-
FNA can be considered at lower size cutoffs for all of the
lance management may be appropriate as an alternative to
sonographic appearances described above.
FNA in selected patients. These may include patients with
Ultrasound elastography (USE) has similarly been investi-
very low-risk tumors (e.g., no clinical or radiographic evi-
gated for its ability to modify thyroid cancer risk assessment
dence of invasion or metastases), patients at high surgical
among clinically relevant thyroid nodules. Elastography is a
risk, or those with a relatively short life span expectancy in
measurement of tissue stiffness. Performance requires an US
whom the benefits of intervention may be unrealized.
machine, as well as an elastography computational module
that most often must be purchased separately. An initial pro-
[A11] What is the role of FNA, cytology
spective study of 92 selected, nonrandomized patients sug-
interpretation, and molecular testing in patients
gested positive and negative predictive values (NPVs) near
with thyroid nodules?
100% (97). However, more recently, larger trials have reported
substantially different results. Moon and colleagues retro-
&
RECOMMENDATION 9
spectively studied 703 thyroid nodules in comparison to gray-
Thyroid nodule FNA cytology should be reported using
scale US (78). Performance of USE was inferior to that of
diagnostic groups outlined in the Bethesda System for
gray-scale US assessment. The largest prospective study of
Reporting Thyroid Cytopathology.
706 patients with 912 thyroid nodules was recently published
by Azizi et al. (98). In this study, the positive predictive value
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
(PPV) of USE was only 36%, comparable to that of micro-
calcifications. The NPV of USE was 97% in a population with
To address a significant variability in the reporting of cy-
cancer prevalence of 9%. Thus, while USE holds promise as a
tological findings in thyroid FNA samples, the 2007 National
means by which to noninvasively assess cancer risk, its per-
Cancer Institute Thyroid Fine-Needle Aspiration State of
formance is highly variable and operator dependent. Perhaps
the Science Conference provided consensus recommenda-
most importantly, USE can only be effectively applied to solid
tions known as the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid
nodules, thus excluding its utility for cystic or partially cystic
Cytopathology (99,100). The Bethesda system recognizes six
nodules. Furthermore, to be amenable to direct pressure and
diagnostic categories and provides an estimation of cancer risk
determination of tissue strain, the index nodule must not
within each category based upon literature review and expert
Table 8. The Bethesda System for Reporting
Thyroid Cytopathology: Diagnostic Categories
a
and Risk of Malignancy
Estimated/predicted risk
Actual risk of malignancy
of malignancy by the
in nodules surgically excised,
Diagnostic category
Bethesda system, %a
% median (range)b
Nondiagnostic or unsatisfactory
1–4
20 (9–32)
Benign
0–3
2.5 (1–10)
Atypia of undetermined significance
5–15
14 (6–48)
or follicular lesion of undetermined
significance
Follicular neoplasm or suspicious for
15–30
25 (14–34)
a follicular neoplasm
Suspicious for malignancy
60–75
70 (53–97)
Malignant
97–99
99 (94–100)
aAs reported in The Bethesda System by Cibas and Ali (1076).
bBased on the meta-analysis of eight studies reported by Bongiovanni et al. (103). The risk was calculated based on the portion of nodules
in each diagnostic category that underwent surgical excision and likely is not representative of the entire population, particularly of
nondiagnostic and benign diagnostic categories.
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
17
opinion (Fig. 1, Table 8). These categories are (i) nondiagnostic/
criteria for cytologic adequacy (i.e., the presence of at least
unsatisfactory; (ii) benign; (iii) atypia of undetermined signifi-
six groups of well-visualized follicular cells, each group
cance/follicular lesion of undetermined significance (AUS/
containing at least 10 well-preserved epithelial cells, pref-
FLUS); (iv) follicular neoplasm/suspicious for follicular neo-
erably on a single slide) (99,108). Although an FNA speci-
plasm (FN/SFN), a category that also encompasses the diag-
men found to have abundant colloid and few epithelial cells
nosis of Hu¨rthle cell neoplasm/suspicious for Hu¨rthle cell
may be considered nondiagnostic by the above criteria, this is
neoplasm; (v) suspicious for malignancy (SUSP), and (vi)
also likely a benign biopsy. After an initial nondiagnostic
malignant. Recent studies that applied the criteria and termi-
cytology result, repeat FNA with US guidance and, if avail-
nology of the Bethesda System to a large series of patients have
able, on-site cytologic evaluation, will substantially increase
shown a relatively good concordance in reporting FNA cytol-
the rate of specimen adequacy (109–113). It has been sug-
ogy, with 89%–95% of samples being satisfactory for inter-
gested that repeat FNA should be performed no sooner than 3
pretation and 55%–74% reported as definitively benign and
months after the initial FNA to prevent false-positive inter-
2%–5% as definitively malignant (101–104). The remaining
pretation due to biopsy-induced reactive/reparative changes
samples are cytologically indeterminate, including AUS/FLUS
(114). Two recent studies have questioned the necessity for a
in 2%–18% of nodules, FN in 2%–25%, and SUSP in 1%–6%.
3-month waiting period after the first FNA because they did
In these studies, the probability of malignancy for each Be-
not find a correlation between the diagnostic yield/accuracy of
thesda category demonstrated significant variability, but was
repeated FNA and the waiting time between the procedures
overall compatible with the range predicted by the Bethesda
(115,116). A 3-month waiting period after a nondiagnostic
System, with the exception of the AUS/FLUS diagnosis, for
biopsy is likely not necessary. If clinical and US features are
which the risk of malignant outcome in some studies was sig-
suspicious for malignancy, a shorter waiting period may be
nificantly higher than predicted (Table 8) (103,105). Recently, a
appropriate. Repeat FNA with US guidance will yield a di-
blinded prospective evaluation of inter-observer concordance
agnostic cytology specimen in 60%–80% of nodules, partic-
using Bethesda classification was performed. These data con-
ularly when the cystic component is <50% (64,112,117).
firm an inherent limitation to the reproducibility of interpreting
Nodules with larger cystic portion have a higher chance to
any cytology specimen (106). Specimens diagnosed as AUS/
yield nondiagnostic samples on the initial and repeated FNA.
FLUS and SUSP were associated with the highest discordance
Most nodules with a nondiagnostic cytology interpretation
rates. Some studies suggest that the AUS/FLUS category should
are benign. In large series of patients classified based on the
be further subdivided into AUS with cytologic atypia (higher
Bethesda System, nondiagnostic samples constituted 2%–16%
risk for malignancy) and FLUS with architectural atypia (lower
of all FNA samples, of which 7%–26% were eventually resected
risk for malignancy), but this has not yet been widely adopted
(101–103). The frequency of malignancy among all initially
(107). Nonetheless, classification using the Bethesda system has
nondiagnostic samples was 2%–4% and among those non-
proven highly beneficial, allowing practitioners to speak with
diagnostic samples that were eventually resected was 9%–32%.
the same terminology and better convey malignant risk. The
Sonographic features are also useful for identifying which
risk of malignancy in each of the six diagnostic categories
nodules with repeat nondiagnostic FNA cytology results are
should be independently defined at each cytology center or
more likely to be malignant. Of 104 nodules with two non-
institution to guide clinicians on risk estimates and help choose
diagnostic cytology results, thyroid cancer was found in 25%
appropriate molecular testing for patients with indeterminate
of those with microcalcifications, irregular margins, a taller
cytology.
than wide shape, or hypoechogenicity, but in only 4% lacking
these features (118).
[A12] Nondiagnostic cytology
In some studies, the use of thyroid core-needle biopsy (119)
and molecular testing for BRAF (120,121) or a panel of muta-
&
RECOMMENDATION 10
tions (122) helped to facilitate appropriate management of these
patients, although the full clinical impact of these approaches
(A) For a nodule with an initial nondiagnostic cytology
for nodules with nondiagnostic cytology remains unknown.
result, FNA should be repeated with US guidance and, if
Some studies have found that core biopsy offers a higher ade-
available, on-site cytologic evaluation
quacy rate, but may be less sensitive for the detection of pap-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
illary cancer (123,124). Mutational testing may be informative
in samples considered inadequate by qualitative criteria (i.e.,
(B) Repeatedly nondiagnostic nodules without a high
due to poor preparation or poor staining of cells) but is unlikely
suspicion sonographic pattern require close observation or
to be contributory in samples with insufficient quantity of cells.
surgical excision for histopathologic diagnosis
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
[A13] Benign cytology
(C) Surgery should be considered for histopathologic di-
agnosis if the cytologically nondiagnostic nodule has a
&
RECOMMENDATION 11
high suspicion sonographic pattern, growth of the nodule
If the nodule is benign on cytology, further immediate
(>20% in two dimensions) is detected during US surveil-
diagnostic studies or treatment are not required
lance, or clinical risk factors for malignancy are present
(Strong recommendation, High-quality evidence)
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
Accurate FNA cytology diagnosis depends upon a num-
Nondiagnostic or unsatisfactory FNA biopsies are those
ber of factors including the skill of the operator, FNA tech-
that fail to meet the established quantitative or qualitative
nique, specimen preparation, and cytology interpretation.
18
HAUGEN ET AL.
Ultrasound-guided FNA with real-time visualization of needle
(B) patients at high surgical risk because of comorbid
placement in the target nodule decreases the false-negative rate
conditions,
of a benign cytology diagnosis (68,69,126,128). Although pro-
(C) patients expected to have a relatively short remaining
spective studies are lacking, malignancy rates of only 1%–2%
life span (e.g., serious cardiopulmonary disease, other
have been reported in large retrospective series that analyzed the
malignancies, very advanced age), or
utility of systematic repeat FNA in nodules with prior benign
(D) patients with concurrent medical or surgical issues that
cytology results (129–133). A pooled analysis of 12 studies by
need to be addressed prior to thyroid surgery.
Tee et al. (134) showed that of 4055 patients with benign cy-
Following thyroid surgery for papillary thyroid micro-
tology who underwent surgery, the rate of malignancy was 3.2%.
carcinoma (PTMC), defined as a tumor 1 cm or less in size,
Studies have also attempted to correlate nodule size with
disease-specific mortality rates have been reported to be
accuracy of FNA cytology. Several surgical series have re-
<1%, loco-regional recurrence rates are 2%–6%, and distant
ported higher malignancy rates in nodules >3–4 cm, but these
recurrence rates are 1%–2% (141,142). It is quite likely that
suffer from both selection bias (only a subset of patients un-
these excellent outcomes are more related to the indolent
derwent preoperative FNA) and potential sampling error (FNA
nature of the disease rather than to the effectiveness of
performed by palpation) (135,136). A recent study evaluated
treatment, since two prospective clinical studies of active
the accuracy of FNA and US features in patients with thyroid
surveillance from Japan reported similar clinical outcomes in
nodules ‡4 cm (137). This was a single-center study in which
1465 patients with biopsy-proven PTMC that were not sur-
the practice is to offer thyroidectomy or lobectomy to all pa-
gically removed and were followed for up to 15 years (av-
tients with nodules ‡4 cm. The investigators identified thyroid
erage 5–6 years, range 1–17 years) (95,143). In the study by
cancer in 22% of 382 nodules. A subset of thyroid nodules
Ito et al. (95), observation was offered to 1235 patients with
underwent preoperative FNA, and of the 125 cytologically
PTMC that did not have (i) location adjacent to the trachea or
benign nodules, 10.4% were malignant on final histopathology.
on the dorsal surface of the lobe close to the recurrent la-
The investigators further showed that individual US char-
ryngeal nerve, (ii) FNA findings suggestive of high-grade
acteristics were not predictive for malignancy, although
malignancy; (iii) presence of regional lymph node metasta-
they did not look at sonographic patterns. Two other recent
ses; or (iv) signs of progression during follow-up. Of those,
reports of consecutive US-guided FNA evaluations in over
most patients showed stable tumor size on average follow-up
1400 nodules >3 cm with initial benign cytology followed
of 60 months (range 18–227 months), whereas 5% showed
for a mean of 3 years confirmed a lower false-negative rate
tumor enlargement (>3 mm) by US on 5-year follow-up, and
of <1.5% (138,139). Interestingly, in both these studies 66%
8% on 10-year follow-up. Furthermore, 1.7% and 3.8% of
of the missed cancers were found in nodules with high
patients at 5-year and 10-year follow-up showed evidence for
suspicion sonographic pattern, despite initial benign cytol-
lymph node metastases. Of 1235 patients, 191 underwent
ogy. A recent retrospective study analyzed the long-term
surgical treatment after observation, including those with
follow-up of 2010 cytologically benign nodules from 1369
tumor enlargement and new lymph node metastases. These
patients. Over a mean follow-up of 8.5 years 18 false-
patients have been followed an average of 75 months (range
negative malignancies were detected. However, no deaths
1–246 months) after the surgical intervention. Only one of the
attributable to thyroid cancer were identified in this cohort.
patients treated with surgery after observation developed
These data confirm that an initially benign FNA confers
tumor recurrence. In the study by Sugitani et al. (143), 230
negligible mortality risk during long-term follow-up despite
patients with asymptomatic PTMC were followed for 5 years
a low but real risk of false negatives in this cytologic cate-
on average. Of those patients, tumor size enlargement was
gory (140). Based on the evidence, it is still unclear if pa-
observed in 7%, and 1% developed apparent lymph node
tients with thyroid nodules ‡4 cm and benign cytology carry
metastasis. Seven percent of patients underwent surgery after
a higher risk of malignancy and should be managed differ-
1–12 years of follow-up, and no recurrences were identified
ently than those with smaller nodules.
in those on limited follow-up, suggesting that the delayed
Follow-up for patients with benign cytology is discussed in
surgery did not affect the outcome. A more recent study by
section [A24] and Recommendation 23.
Ito and colleagues followed 1235 patients with PTMC under
active surveillance for an average of 60 months (95). Only 43
[A14] Malignant cytology
patients (3.5%) had clinical progression of disease by their
stated criteria (tumor growing to >12 mm or appearance of
&
RECOMMENDATION 12
new lymph node metastases). Interestingly, the younger pa-
If a cytology result is diagnostic for primary thyroid ma-
tients (<40 years old) had an 8.9% rate of clinical progres-
lignancy, surgery is generally recommended.
sion, while those 40–60 years old had a 3.5% rate of
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
progression and those >60 years old had the lowest rate of
clinical progression (1.6%).
A cytology diagnostic for a primary thyroid malignancy
Despite the evidence that cautious observation is a safe and
will almost always lead to thyroid surgery. However, an ac-
effective alternative to immediate surgical resection, very few
tive surveillance management approach can be considered as
PTMC patients outside of those two centers in Japan are given
an alternative to immediate surgery in
the option of an active surveillance approach. This is in part due
(A) patients with very low risk tumors (e.g., papillary
to reports in the literature of a small percentage of patients with
microcarcinomas without clinically evident metasta-
PTMC presenting with clinically significant regional or distant
ses or local invasion, and no convincing cytologic
metastases (141,142,144). Unfortunately, no clinical features
evidence of aggressive disease),
(145–151) can reliably differentiate the relatively small number
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
19
of PTMC patients destined to develop clinically significant
The principal proposed use of molecular markers in
progression from the larger population of people that harbor
indeterminate thyroid FNA specimens is diagnostic
indolent PTMCs that will not cause significant disease.
(ruling out or in the presence of thyroid malignancy),
Similarly, well-known thyroid cancer oncogenes, such as
with the implication of a companion use to inform
BRAF, when taken in isolation, are not able to specifically
decision-making on primary surgical treatment (i.e., the
identify the microcarcinomas that will progress and spread
decision to perform surgery and if so, the extent of
outside of the thyroid. The prevalence of BRAFV600E muta-
surgery). However, the focus of this section is restricted
tions in PTMC with lymph node metastases and tumor re-
to the clinical validity of molecular testing of indeter-
currence is higher than PTMC without LN metastases or
minate FNA specimens. It is important to note that long-
recurrence, and in some studies the presence of a BRAF mu-
term outcome data on companion use of molecular
tation was associated with lymph node metastasis from PTMC
marker status to guide therapeutic decision-making is
on multivariate analysis (150,152,153). These studies showed
currently lacking, and therefore we do not know if im-
that although the presence of a BRAFV600E mutation identifies
plementation of molecular marker use in routine clinical
65%–77% of patients with PTMC that develop lymph node
practice would result in a significant overall benefit in
metastases, the BRAF status taken in isolation has a low PPV
health outcomes in patients with thyroid nodules. Sur-
for detecting PTMC with extrathyroidal spread and therefore
gical decision-making on indeterminate FNA specimens is
has a limited role for guiding patient management. However,
reviewed in another section of these guidelines, with some
recent data suggest that specific molecular profiles, such as the
reference to molecular marker testing (if performed). As
coexistence of BRAF with other oncogenic mutations (such as
summarized in a Disease State Commentary from the
PIK3CA, AKT1), TERT promoter, or TP53 mutations may
AACE Thyroid Scientific Committee and a consensus
serve as more specific markers of less favorable outcome of
statement from the ATA Surgical Affairs Committee, use
PTC. Therefore, it is likely that finding of one of these genetic
of molecular marker testing on indeterminate FNA spec-
profiles in a small tumor would suggest that it represents an
imens should not be intended to replace other sources of
early stage of a clinically relevant PTC (154–157). Future
information or clinical judgment (159,160). The pretest
studies are expected to establish the impact of molecular pro-
probability of malignancy (based on clinical risk factors,
filing involving multiple mutations or other genetic alterations
cytology, US findings), feasibility considerations, and
on clinical management of patients with PTMC.
patient preferences are some additional factors that need
to be considered in decision-making related to molecular
[A15] Indeterminate cytology (AUS/FLUS, FN, SUSP)*
marker testing of FNA specimens. Because this is a rap-
idly evolving field of investigation, it will be important to
[A16] What are the principles of the molecular
perform interval evaluations of the published evidence to
testing of FNA samples?
ensure that recommendations remain contemporary.
A number of molecular approaches have been studied in
Molecular markers may be classified according to intended
the clinical setting of indeterminate FNA cytologic inter-
use; that is, diagnostic (classification of a disease state),
pretation (161). One could surmise that an ideal ‘‘rule-in’’
prognostic, or predictive purposes (providing information on
test would have a PPV for histopathologically proven ma-
the estimated probability of therapeutic benefit or harm of a
lignancy similar to a malignant cytologic diagnosis (98.6%),
specific therapy) (158). Furthermore, companion use of pre-
and an ideal ‘‘rule-out’’ test would have a NPV similar to a
dictive molecular markers involves the identification of patient
benign cytologic diagnosis (96.3%) (predictive value esti-
subgroups in which a therapeutic intervention is proven to be
mates based on a recent meta-analysis of performance of the
either beneficial or harmful, with intended implications for
Bethesda system) (103), and these would hold true with a
appropriate clinical stratification of therapies (158). Validation
reasonable degree of precision and reproducibility.
studies of molecular marker tests may include examination of
(a) analytic validity (including test accuracy and reproduc-
ibility in ascertaining the molecular event), (b) clinical validity
&
RECOMMENDATION 13
(the performance of the test in distinguishing different groups
If molecular testing is being considered, patients should be
of patients, based on biology or expected disease outcome,
counseled regarding the potential benefits and limitations
including measures of sensitivity and specificity or predictive
of testing and about the possible uncertainties in the
values), and (c) clinical utility (examination of the test’s ability
therapeutic and long-term clinical implications of results.
to improve outcomes, with direct clinical decision-making
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
implications) (158). Furthermore, an NCCN Tumor Marker
Task Force has indicated that the clinical utility of a molecular
The largest studies of preoperative molecular markers in
test should be founded in strong evidence proving that use of
patients with indeterminate FNA cytology have respectively
the marker ‘‘improves patient outcomes sufficiently to justify
evaluated a seven-gene panel of genetic mutations and re-
its incorporation into routine clinical practice.’’{
arrangements (BRAF, RAS, RET/PTC, PAX8/PPARc) (162),
a gene expression classifier (167 GEC; mRNA expression
of 167 genes) (163), and galectin-3 immunohistochemistry
*The final draft for the sections (A15–A19) and recommenda-
(cell blocks) (164). These respective studies have been sub-
tions (13–17) were revised and approved by a subgroup of seven
ject to various degrees of blinding of outcome assessment
members of the task force with no perceived conflicts or competing
(162–164).
interests in this area.
{
Mutational testing has been proposed for use as a rule-in test
From the NCCN Biomarkers Compendium (www.nccn.org/
professionals/biomarkers/default.aspx).
because of relatively high reported specificity (86%–100%)
20
HAUGEN ET AL.
and PPV (84%–100%) (105,122,162,165–168). Although
the 48 nodules in the AUS/FLUS group across institutions (no
BRAFV600E single mutation testing has been estimated to have
95% confidence interval [95% CI] reported, p = 0.11), and
a specificity of approximately 99% (pooled data from 1117
from 33% to 67% in the 65 nodules in the FN cytology group
nodules with histopathologic confirmation from multiple
(no 95% CI reported, p = 0.87) (171). For the 174 patients with
studies), the sensitivity has been deemed to be too low to
167 GEC ‘‘benign’’ readings, four patients were advised to
reliably rule out the presence of malignancy (169). Therefore,
undergo surgery (2%), and 41% (71 patients) of this group had
mutational panels have been expanded to include multiple
short documented follow-up for a mean of 8.5 months (me-
mutations/translocations including BRAF, NRAS, HRAS, and
dian 8 months, range 1–24 months); ultimately, 6% of patients
KRAS point mutations, as well as RET/PTC1 and RET/PTC3,
in this group (11/174) had surgery, with one histopatho-
with or without PAX8/PPARc rearrangements (105,122,162,
logically confirmed malignancy (171). The reproducibility
165–168) and other gene rearrangements (170). In indeter-
of 167 GEC NPV measures in different populations of pa-
minate cytology thyroid nodules, the sensitivity of the seven-
tients with indeterminate cytology thyroid nodules has re-
gene mutational panel testing is variable, with reports ranging
cently been questioned in three smaller, independent,
from 44% to 100% (162,165,167). The reported variability in
unblinded studies (172–174). None of these studies reported
sensitivity of mutational analysis with the seven-gene panel in
any degree of blinding. Furthermore, 95% CI of predictive
indeterminate nodules suggests that traditional limited muta-
estimates in indeterminate cytology nodules were not re-
tion panels may not reliably rule out malignancy with a neg-
ported in two single-center studies (172,173), and one
ative test in this population. Next-generation sequencing of an
multi-center study was reported to be a retrospective anal-
expanded panel of point mutations, single base insertions/de-
ysis (174), making it difficult to interpret the findings.
letions (indels), and gene rearrangements has been reported to
However, such data highlight the need for additional inde-
have a sensitivity of 90% for FN/SFN FNA cytology speci-
pendent research examining the reproducibility of diag-
mens from a single-center study (170). A limitation was that
nostic efficacy of the 167 GEC in more institutions, and the
the pathologists evaluating the gold standard surgical pathol-
importance of reporting precision estimates for diagnostic
ogy specimens were aware of the results of earlier generation
accuracy measures. Furthermore, as in the case of other
molecular tests previously conducted on the FNAs (170). It is
molecular-based diagnostic tests in the field, long-term
not known to what extent differences in techniques used to
outcome data from clinical utility studies are needed to in-
perform mutational testing by various groups (162,167,170)
form potential future clinical practice implications of the
may affect test performance, and direct, head-to-head compar-
167 GEC.
isons of these tests within the same population are lacking. The
Immunohistochemical stains such as galectin-3 and
currently available seven-gene mutational panels have been
HBME-1 have been examined in multiple studies of histo-
proposed to be most useful when surgery is favored. However,
logically confirmed thyroid FNA samples with indeterminate
this is based on the assumption that the surgical approach would
cytology, with reports of relatively high rates of specificity,
be altered with a positive test, and long-term outcome data
but low sensitivity, for cancer detection (164,175,176). Two
proving the overall benefit of this therapeutic strategy are nee-
of these studies were reported to be prospective (164,175),
ded. It is important to acknowledge that algorithms employing
but only one of the studies reported any degree of blinding
seven-gene mutational testing as a means to inform decision-
(blind central histopathologic review) (164). Immuno-
making on extent of primary thyroid surgery (i.e., lobectomy or
histochemical stains require the availability of a cell block to
total thyroidectomy) (162) were developed at a time when the
perform the staining. Additional diagnostic molecular marker
ATA guidelines favored total thyroidectomy for most PTCs
strategies are also under development. Specifically, mRNA
>1 cm in diameter (25). However, this does not reflect recom-
markers (177–179), as well as miRNA markers (180–185),
mendations in these guidelines (see Recommendation 35 on
have shown initial diagnostic utility in FNA samples with in-
surgical management of malignant cytology nodules). Fur-
determinate cytological diagnoses, but they have not been
thermore, long-term outcome data from a strategy of using
thoroughly validated. A recent study combining seven-gene
molecular markers in indeterminate FNA specimens to stratify
mutational testing with expression of a set of 10 miRNA genes
surgical approach are currently lacking.
on preoperative FNA sampling from 109 patients with AUS/
Use of a 167 GEC has been proposed as a rule-out test
FLUS or FN cytology, showed 89% sensitivity, 85% speci-
due to relatively high sensitivity (92%) and NPV (93%), as
ficity, with a 73% PPV and 94% NPV on this group with a 32%
reported in a prospective multicenter study (163). The
prevalence of malignancy (186). Finally, peripheral blood TSH
relatively low specificity of the 167 GEC test (mean values
receptor mRNA assay has been reported to have a 90% PPV
48%–53% in indeterminate nodules subject to histopatho-
and 39% NPV in FNA-based assessment of thyroid nodules
logic confirmation) suggests that the test cannot defini-
with atypical or suspicious cytology in a single-center, pro-
tively rule-in malignancy in indeterminate nodules. In a
spective validation study (187).
retrospective analysis of 167 GEC results from five insti-
In summary, there is currently no single optimal molecular
tutions, Alexander et al. (171) reported that the prevalence
test that can definitively rule in or rule out malignancy in all
of 167 GEC benign readings by institution varied up to
cases of indeterminate cytology, and long-term outcome data
29%, which was not statistically significant. The distribu-
proving clinical utility are needed.
tion of recruitment from each of the five study sites was
highly variable (total n = 339 nodules), with two sites
&
RECOMMENDATION 14
contributing only 30 and 37 patients, and the other three
If intended for clinical use, molecular testing should be per-
sites accounting for the majority of the study population.
formed in Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments/
The prevalence of malignancy confirmed by histopathology in
College of American Pathologists (CLIA/CAP)-certified
167 GEC ‘‘suspicious’’ nodules ranged from 33% to 80% in
molecular laboratories, or the international equivalent,
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
21
because reported quality assurance practices may be superior
a single AUS/FLUS diagnosis (37/90, 41%), two successive
compared to other settings.
AUS/FLUS diagnoses (22/51, 43%), and patients with a be-
nign cytologic interpretation following the initial AUS/FLUS
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
diagnosis (2/7, 29%) (196). Use of thyroid core-needle bi-
opsy was reported by some to be more informative than re-
Many molecular marker tests are available in hospital-based
peated FNA for sampling nodules that were AUS/FLUS on
molecular pathology laboratories and in reference laboratories.
initial FNA (119), and it is reasonably well-tolerated (197).
Importantly, all molecular marker tests intended for clinical use
The refinement of risk stratification of nodules with AUS/
should be performed only in CLIA/CAP-certified molecular
FLUS cytology using molecular testing has been examined in
laboratories after appropriate analytical and clinical validation
multiple studies. The interpretation of molecular testing is
of all assays in each laboratory (158). In a survey of American
complex, however, and its utility is strongly influenced by the
molecular genetic testing laboratory directors, laboratory pro-
prevalence of cancer in the tested population of nodules. Only
cess quality assurance score (for multiple relevant domains)
two molecular tests have been separately evaluated and val-
was associated with the presence of CLIA certification (188). In
idated for the individual AUS/FLUS, FN, and SUSP cate-
a large, international survey of medical genetic testing labo-
gories. Mutational testing for BRAF in AUS/FLUS samples
ratory directors, accreditation of the laboratory was associated
has high specificity for cancer, but low sensitivity (198,199).
with a higher quality assurance index score (189).
Testing for a panel of mutations (BRAF, NRAS, HRAS, KRAS,
RET/PTC1, RET/PTC3, PAX8/PPARc) offers a significantly
[A17] AUS/FLUS cytology
higher sensitivity of 63%–80% (162,165). In the largest
prospective study to date of nodules with AUS/FLUS cytol-
&
RECOMMENDATION 15
ogy (653 consecutive nodules, of which 247 had surgical
follow-up) from a single institution, detection of any of these
(A) For nodules with AUS/FLUS cytology, after consider-
mutations using RT-PCR with fluorescent melting curve
ation of worrisome clinical and sonographic features, in-
analysis was reported to convey an 88% risk of cancer among
vestigations such as repeat FNA or molecular testing may be
nodules with surgical follow-up; 63% of cancers on final
used to supplement malignancy risk assessment in lieu of
histopathology were identified with a positive mutation pre-
proceeding directly with a strategy of either surveillance or
operatively (22 of 35), and 94% of nodules that were negative
diagnostic surgery. Informed patient preference and feasi-
on mutation analysis had a benign final histopathology (209
bility should be considered in clinical decision-making.
of 222) (162). Positive testing for BRAF, RET/PTC or PAX8/
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
PPARc was specific for a malignant outcome in 100% of cases,
whereas RAS mutations had an 84% risk of cancer and a 16%
(B) If repeat FNA cytology, molecular testing, or both are
chance of benign follicular adenoma. A recent study utilizing
not performed or inconclusive, either surveillance or di-
RT-PCR with liquid bead array flow cytometry with the seven-
agnostic surgical excision may be performed for an AUS/
gene mutation panel reported on 11 AUS/FLUS cytology
FLUS thyroid nodule, depending on clinical risk factors,
nodules that had malignant histopathologic confirmation, of
sonographic pattern, and patient preference.
which seven had a negative molecular test and four had a
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
positive test (167). There were also 11 AUS/FLUS cytology
nodules, which were benign on histopathologic evaluation; 9
Based on the Bethesda System, this diagnostic category is
of 11 had a negative molecular test result and 2 of 11 had a
reserved for specimens that contain cells with architectural and/or
positive result. Interpretation of results from the AUS/FLUS
nuclear atypia that is more pronounced than expected for benign
subgroup is limited by the small reported sample size (167).
changes but not sufficient to be placed in one of the higher risk
Molecular testing using the 167 GEC has been studied for
diagnostic categories (99,190). Although this diagnostic category
its diagnostic use in nodules with AUS/FLUS cytology. A
has been recommended for limited use and has an expected
multi-institutional study of 129 FNA samples with AUS/
frequency in the range of 7%, recent reports based on the Be-
FLUS cytology and surgical follow-up reported a 90% sen-
thesda System have found this cytologic diagnosis to be used in
sitivity [95% CI 74%–98%] and 95% NPV [95% CI 85%–
1%–27% of all thyroid FNA samples (105,191). In studies that
99%], but only a 53% specificity [95% CI 43%–63%] and
utilized the criteria established by the Bethesda System, the risk
38% PPV [95% CI 27%–50%] for cancer (163). Although the
of cancer for patients with AUS/FLUS nodules who underwent
specificity of the 167 GEC was low (53% [95% CI 43%–
surgery was 6%–48%, with a mean risk of 16% (191).
63%]), the negative test result was reported to decrease the
A second opinion review of the cytopathology slides by a
risk estimate of malignancy in AUS/FLUS nodules in this
high-volume cytopathologist may be considered for patients
study from 24% to 5%. This observation has led to a clinical
with AUS/FLUS cytology. There is some evidence that this
extrapolation suggesting that nodules that have a negative
approach may reclassify many of these patients into the be-
167 GEC test results may be followed without surgery (163).
nign and nondiagnostic categories (106,192). Furthermore, the
In a recent single-center retrospective study including 68
overall diagnostic accuracy may be improved. Unfortunately,
cases of AUS/FLUS nodules, 16 AUS/FLUS cases were re-
there is a relatively high intra-observer variability in this dif-
ported to have a 167 GEC suspicious result, and the PPV was
ficult diagnostic category (106).
61% (11 of 18) for those with surgical pathology confirma-
A repeat FNA yields a more definitive cytologic diagnosis
tion (200). There were insufficient data to confirm the NPV of
in many cases, whereas 10%–30% of nodules are repeatedly
the 167 GEC test for AUS/FLUS cytology, since the vast
AUS/FLUS (104,193–195). The rate of malignancy on sur-
majority of patients with a benign 167 GEC test did not undergo
gical follow-up has been shown to be similar for patients with
surgery, and no long-term follow-up of such cases was reported
22
HAUGEN ET AL.
(200). In three other recent studies, there were insufficient data
sonographic features, molecular testing may be used to
for analysis in the AUS/FLUS subgroup to draw any mean-
supplement malignancy risk assessment data in lieu of
ingful conclusion on 167 GEC test performance in that sub-
proceeding directly with surgery. Informed patient pref-
group (172–174). In addition, published follow-up for the 167
erence and feasibility should be considered in clinical
GEC is currently limited to a mean of 8.5 months in a subgroup
decision-making.
of 71 patients (171), hence long-term outcome data are needed
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
to ensure durability of benign 167 GEC findings with corre-
lation to clinical and histologic outcomes.
(B) If molecular testing is either not performed or incon-
Several recent studies (201–205) have examined the feasi-
clusive, surgical excision may be considered for removal
bility of using sonographic features to estimate risk of malig-
and definitive diagnosis of an FN/SFN thyroid nodule.
nancy in nodules with AUS/FLUS cytology. The PPV of
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
suspicious sonographic features has been estimated to range
from 60% to 100% depending on the pretest probability of
malignancy of AUS/FLUS cytology and the specific sono-
This diagnostic category of the Bethesda System is used
graphic criteria selected in respective studies. A limitation of all
for cellular aspirates (i) comprised of follicular cells arranged
of these studies is that a gold-standard surgical excisional di-
in an altered architectural pattern characterized by cell
agnosis was not required for confirmation of malignancy and
crowding and/or microfollicle formation and lacking nuclear
long-term follow-up data were generally lacking. The preva-
features of papillary carcinoma or (ii) comprised almost ex-
lence of suspicious sonographic features among studies of AUS/
clusively of oncocytic (Hu¨rthle) cells (99,206,207). This is an
FLUS cytology nodules ranged from 18% to 50%, assuming
intermediate risk category in the Bethesda System, with a
that one or more suspicious features were deemed to be suffi-
15%–30% estimated risk of malignancy. Studies that applied
cient to be categorized as a sonographically suspicious nodule.
the Bethesda System reported the use of this diagnostic cat-
The findings of these studies must be interpreted in the context
egory in 1%–25% (mean, 10%) of all thyroid FNA samples,
of each study’s overall risk of malignancy for this cytology
with the risk of cancer on surgery found to range from 14% to
classification because of its effect on the PPVs obtained by
33% (mean, 26%) (191).
subsequent application of sonographic features to cytologically
The refinement of risk stratification of nodules with FN/
AUS/FLUS nodules. From the four Korean studies (overall
SFN/Hu¨rthle cell neoplasm cytology has been examined using
malignancy rate 40%–55%), the reported cancer risk in AUS/
ancillary molecular testing. Testing for a seven-gene panel of
FLUS nodules with the high suspicion sonographic pattern is
mutations (including BRAF, RAS, RET/PTC, and/PPARc) in
90%–100% (201–204), and the presence of even one suspi-
nodules with follicular or Hu¨rthle cell neoplasm or SFN has
cious US feature (irregular margins, taller than wide shape,
been reported to be associated with a sensitivity of 57%–75%,
marked hypoechogenicity or microcalcifications) increases the
specificity of 97%–100%, PPV of 87%–100%, and NPV of
cancer risk to 60%–90%. However, when the reported cancer
79%–86% (162,165). Many of these benign tumors are follic-
rate in AUS/FLUS nodules is lower [e.g., 23% in a study from
ular adenomas driven by oncogenic RAS mutation with un-
Brazil (205)], the high suspicion sonographic pattern still raises
certain malignant potential (208). Nodules lacking all of these
the risk of malignancy, but the PPV is lower at 70%. None-
mutations still have a substantial cancer risk, which is due to the
theless, the incidence of cancer in AUS/FLUS nodules with
presence of a subset of tumors that lack any of the mutations
either the high suspicion pattern US or just one suspicious US
tested by this seven-gene panel (162). Expansion of the current
feature is significantly higher than that generally accepted for
panels to include additional mutations and gene rearrangements
this cytology category. In a secondary analysis of a retro-
with this next-generation sequencing assay was associated with
spective single-center study of indeterminate FNA specimens
a sensitivity of 90% [95% CI 80%–99%], specificity of 93%
subject to 167 GEC testing, Lastra et al. studied whether re-
[95% CI 88%–98%], PPV of 83% [95% CI 72%–95%], and
examining US characteristics could assist in distinguishing
NPV of 96% [95% CI 92%–100%] in a recent single-center
malignancy in indeterminate cytology nodules with a 167
study of 143 consecutive FN/SFN FNA specimens with known
GEC suspicious result (200). The presence of ‘‘nodular cal-
surgical outcomes. In this study (170), retrospective (n = 91)
cifications’’ or hyper- versus hypo-echogenicity did not alter
and prospective data (n = 52) were combined. A limitation was
the prediction of malignancy. It is unclear whether this study
that the pathologists reviewing the surgical specimens were
was adequately powered because the analysis was limited to a
aware of earlier generation molecular marker seven-gene panel
subgroup of 48 cases for analysis of microcalcifications and
test results, although they were blinded to results of the next-
20 cases for analysis of echogenicity (200). Further research
generation mutation panel (162,170). Given the overlap of
is needed to examine the impact of considering clinical and
some of the markers detected in earlier and later generation
sonographic features on the potential utility and interpreta-
assays, there is a potential for bias (170), and the results need to
tion of molecular testing of FNA specimens.
be replicated in other studies.
Molecular testing using the GEC was reported to have a
[A18] Follicular neoplasm/suspicious for follicular neo-
94% NPV [95% CI 79%–99%], and a 37% PPV [95% CI
plasm cytology
23%–52%] in the FN/SFN/Hu¨rthle cell neoplasm Bethesda
subgroup (163). A recent unblinded study from the Mayo
Clinic utilizing a prospective patient registry reported the
&
RECOMMENDATION 16
following diagnostic accuracy estimates in a subgroup of 31
(A) Diagnostic surgical excision is the long-established
indeterminate nodules from the same Bethesda subgroup that
standard of care for the management of FN/SFN cytology
were subject to histopathologic confirmation: sensitivity 80%
nodules. However, after consideration of clinical and
(four of five nodules), specificity 12% (3 of 26 nodules), PPV
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
23
15% (4 of 27), and NPV 75% (three of four) (173). In a single-
in respective single-center studies (162,165,168). Molecular
center retrospective study including 64 nodules subjected to
testing using the 167 GEC has a PPV that is similar to cytol-
167 GEC testing and a cytology read as FN/FN with oncocytic
ogy alone (76%) and a NPV of 85% (163), and it is therefore
features, the PPV for a suspicious GEC result was 37% (11 of
not indicated in patients with this cytologic diagnosis.
30), although the PPV was significantly higher in the FN
group (53%) compared with the FN with oncocytic features
[A20] What is the utility of 18FDG-PET scanning
group (15%) (200). There were insufficient numbers of pa-
to predict malignant or benign disease when FNA
tients with benign 167 GEC results who underwent surgery to
cytology is indeterminate (AUS/FLUS, FN, SUSP)?
draw conclusions on NPV; moreover, no long-term follow-up
data were reported (200). The relatively small number of in-
&
RECOMMENDATION 18
determinate nodules is an important limitation. Furthermore,
18FDG-PET imaging is not routinely recommended for the
precision estimates (95% CIs) for the diagnostic accuracy
evaluation of thyroid nodules with indeterminate cytology.
measures were not reported but could be assumed to be rel-
atively wide given the small sample size (173,200).
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
[A19] Suspicious for malignancy cytology
Eight studies have been performed and are the subject of
two meta-analyses (213–222). While early data suggested a
high NPV for 18FDG-PET in this setting, most studies failed
&
RECOMMENDATION 17
to use the Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cyto-
(A) If the cytology is reported as suspicious for papillary
pathology and included numerous small nodules <1 cm in
carcinoma (SUSP), surgical management should be simi-
diameter (221). A recent meta-analysis included seven
lar to that of malignant cytology, depending on clinical risk
studies, of which five were prospective (222). The cancer
factors, sonographic features, patient preference, and
prevalence was 26% inclusive of all combined data, con-
possibly results of mutational testing (if performed).
firming a typical study cohort. Sensitivity and specificity
of 18FDG-PET were 89% and 55%, respectively, resulting in
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
a 41% PPV and 93% NPV, which is similar to the perfor-
(B) After consideration of clinical and sonographic
mance of the 167 GEC. Vriens et al. (223) performed a cost-
features, mutational testing for BRAF or the seven-gene
effectiveness analysis using 18FDG-PET performance data
mutation marker panel (BRAF, RAS, RET/PTC, PAX8/
from their own meta-analysis and 2012 reimbursement rates
PPARc) may be considered in nodules with SUSP cytology
of the Dutch system. They showed that 18FDG-PET was more
if such data would be expected to alter surgical decision-
cost effective than surgery, the 167 GEC, or mutational testing.
making.
A recent prospective analysis of 56 nodules with indetermi-
nate FNA cytology used both 18FDG-PET and thyroid US
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
to further evaluate the nodules (220). In a multivariate analy-
sis, the authors demonstrated no additional diagnostic benefit
This diagnostic category of the Bethesda System is reserved
or improved risk assessment when adding 18FDG-PET to that
for aspirates with cytologic features that raise a strong suspi-
already obtained from thyroid US, bringing into question the
cion for malignancy (mainly for PTC) but are not sufficient for
incremental benefit of PET imaging in patients with cytolog-
a conclusive diagnosis (99,209). This is the highest risk cate-
ically indeterminate thyroid nodules.
gory of indeterminate cytology in the Bethesda System, with
an estimated cancer risk of 60%–75% (209). Studies that uti-
lize the Bethesda System have reported this cytologic diag-
[A21] What is the appropriate operation
nosis in 1%–6% of thyroid FNAs and found malignancy after
for cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules?
surgery in 53%–87% (mean, 75%) of these nodules (191). Due
&
RECOMMENDATION 19
to the high risk of cancer, the diagnosis of suspicious for
When surgery is considered for patients with a solitary,
papillary carcinoma is an indication for surgery.
cytologically indeterminate nodule, thyroid lobectomy is
Mutational testing has been proposed to refine risk prior to
the recommended initial surgical approach. This approach
surgery, assuming that surgical management would change
may be modified based on clinical or sonographic char-
based on a positive test result. BRAF mutations have been
acteristics, patient preference, and/or molecular testing
reported to confer close to 100% probability of malignancy
when performed (see Recommendations 13–16).
(162,198,210,211). Testing for BRAF mutations in nodules
suspicious for malignancy has been reported to have a sen-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
sitivity of 36% (10 of 28) and specificity of 100% (24 of 24) in
a single-center retrospective study (162). In another single
&
RECOMMENDATION 20
center retrospective study in which FNA slides deemed to be
suspicious for PTC were tested after surgery, the sensitivity of
(A) Because of increased risk for malignancy, total
BRAF testing for PTC was 45.5% (15 of 33), and specificity
thyroidectomy may be preferred in patients with indeter-
was 85.7% (12 of 14) (212). Testing for a seven-gene panel of
minate nodules that are cytologically suspicious for ma-
mutations (including BRAF, RAS, RET/PTC, with or without
lignancy, positive for known mutations specific for
PAX8/PPARc) in nodules with cytology suspicious for ma-
carcinoma, sonographically suspicious, or large (>4 cm),
lignancy is associated with a sensitivity of 50%–68%, speci-
or in patients with familial thyroid carcinoma or history of
ficity of 86%–96%, PPV of 80%–95%, and NPV of 72%–75%
radiation exposure, if completion thyroidectomy would be
24
HAUGEN ET AL.
recommended based on the indeterminate nodule being
84% risk of malignancy and should be considered in a similar
malignant following lobectomy.
risk category to cytologically suspicious for malignancy
(Table 8) (103,230). Nodules that are cytologically classified
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
as AUS/FLUS or FN or SUSP and that are positive for known
(B) Patients with indeterminate nodules who have bilateral
BRAFV600E, RET/PTC, or PAX8/PPARc mutations have an
nodular disease, those with significant medical co-
estimated risk of malignancy of >95% and should be con-
morbidities, or those who prefer to undergo bilateral thy-
sidered in a similar category to cytologically diagnosed
roidectomy to avoid the possibility of requiring a future
thyroid carcinoma (198,210,211).
surgery on the contralateral lobe, may undergo total or
Sonographic pattern of nodules with AUS/FLUS cytology
near-total thyroidectomy, assuming completion thyroid-
may aid in risk stratification and management. In one study,
ectomy would be recommended if the indeterminate
sonographically benign or seemingly very low risk nodules
nodule proved malignant following lobectomy.
with AUS/FLUS cytology were noted to be malignant in
only 8% of cases, compared to 58% when sonographic sus-
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
picious was low or intermediate, and 100% when sono-
graphic suspicion of malignancy was high (203). Another
The primary goal of thyroid surgery for a thyroid nodule
study supported this finding with sonographic findings highly
that is cytologically indeterminate (AUS/FLUS or FN or
suspicious for malignancy (taller than wide shape, irregular
SUSP) is to establish a histological diagnosis and definitive
borders, and/or marked hypoechogenicity) having >90%
removal, while reducing the risks associated with remedial
specificity and PPV for malignancy (202).
surgery in the previously operated field if the nodule proves to
The risks of total thyroidectomy are significantly greater
be malignant. Surgical options to address the nodule should be
than that for thyroid lobectomy, with a recent meta-analysis
limited to lobectomy (hemithyroidectomy) with or without
suggesting a pooled relative risk (RR) significantly greater
isthmusectomy, near-total thyroidectomy (removal of all
for all complications, including recurrent laryngeal nerve in-
grossly visible thyroid tissue, leaving only a small amount
jury (transient RR = 1.7, permanent RR = 1.9), hypocalcemia
[<1 g] of tissue adjacent to the recurrent laryngeal nerve near
(transient RR = 10.7, permanent RR = 3.2), and hemorrhage/
the ligament of Berry), or total thyroidectomy (removal of all
hematoma (RR = 2.6) (231). Further, total thyroidectomy is
grossly visible thyroid tissue). Removal of the nodule alone,
associated with the rare but potential risk of bilateral recurrent
partial lobectomy, and subtotal thyroidectomy, leaving >1 g
laryngeal nerve injury necessitating tracheostomy. Surgeon
of tissue with the posterior capsule on the uninvolved side, are
experience likely influences the risks of thyroidectomy, with
inappropriate operations for possible thyroid cancer (224).
higher volume surgeons having lower complication rates
Decisions regarding the extent of surgery for indeterminate
(232,233).
thyroid nodules are influenced by several factors (225), in-
Total thyroidectomy necessitates thyroid hormone re-
cluding the estimated presurgical likelihood of malignancy
placement, while lobectomy is associated with an incidence
based upon clinical risk factors (>4 cm, family history, and/or
of postoperative biochemical hypothyroidism estimated at
history of radiation) (226–229), sonographic pattern (Table 6,
22%, with clinical or overt hypothyroidism estimated at 4%
Fig. 2) (202–203), cytologic category (Table 8), and ancillary
(234). A significantly increased risk of hypothyroidism fol-
test findings (see molecular testing section [A15–19]). These
lowing lobectomy has been reported in the presence of auto-
risk factors, as well as patient preference, presence of con-
immune thyroid disease (e.g., as reflected by the presence of
tralateral nodularity or coexistent hyperthyroidism, and
thyroid antibodies) or high normal/elevated TSH (231,234).
medical comorbidities, impact decisions regarding thyroid
Hypothyroidism is not an indication for thyroidectomy, and
lobectomy with the possible need for subsequent completion
its use as justification for total thyroidectomy over lobectomy
thyroidectomy versus total thyroidectomy up front.
should be weighed against the higher risks associated with
Nodules that are cytologically classified as AUS/FLUS or
total thyroidectomy. In contrast, coexistent hyperthyroidism
FN and benign using the 167 GEC, or AUS/FLUS and neg-
may be an indication for total thyroidectomy depending upon
ative using the seven-gene mutation panel have an estimated
the etiology.
5%–6% risk of malignancy (162,163). Nodules that are cyto-
Thyroid lobectomy (hemithyroidectomy) provides defini-
logically classified as FN and negative using the seven-gene
tive histological diagnosis and complete tumor removal for
mutation panel have an estimated 14% risk of malignancy,
cytologically indeterminate nodules with a lower risk of
which is slightly lower than the risk based upon the Bethesda
complications compared to total thyroidectomy and may be
classification alone (162).
sufficient for smaller, solitary intrathyroidal nodules that ul-
Nodules that are cytologically classified as AUS/FLUS or
timately prove malignant. As the likelihood of malignancy
FN and as suspicious using the 167 GEC have an estimated
increases, the potential need for a second operation also in-
37%–44% risk of malignancy, which is slightly higher than
creases, if the cytologically indeterminate nodule ultimately
the risk based upon the Bethesda classification alone (Table
proves malignant and if completion thyroidectomy would
8) (163,171).
be recommended. Intraoperative evaluation, with or without
Nodules that are cytologically classified as SUSP cytology
frozen section, can occasionally confirm malignancy at the
and benign using the 167 GEC or negative using the mutation
time of lobectomy allowing for conversion to total thyroid-
seven-gene panel, also have an estimated 15%–28% risk of
ectomy if indicated. Frozen section is most helpful if the
malignancy.
histopathologic diagnosis is classic PTC, whereas its impact
In contrast, nodules that are cytologically classified as
is low in follicular variant of PTC and FTC. The individual
AUS/FLUS or FN and that are positive for known RAS mu-
patient must weigh the relative advantages and disadvantages
tations associated with thyroid carcinoma have an estimated
of thyroid lobectomy with possible total thyroidectomy or
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
25
subsequent completion thyroidectomy versus initial total
with the goal of identifying and aspirating appropriate hy-
thyroidectomy.
pofunctioning nodules. Such imaging may prove especially
useful when the serum TSH is below or in the low-normal
range. Similarly, sonographic risk assessment of each nodule
[A22] How should multinodular thyroid glands
can assist in identifying those nodules with the highest like-
(i.e., two or more clinically relevant nodules)
lihood of cancer (see section [A10]).
be evaluated for malignancy?
&
[A23] What are the best methods for long-term
RECOMMENDATION 21
follow-up of patients with thyroid nodules?
(A) Patients with multiple thyroid nodules ‡1 cm should be
evaluated in the same fashion as patients with a solitary
[A24] Recommendations for initial follow-up of nodules
nodule ‡1 cm, excepting that each nodule that is >1 cm
with benign FNA cytology
carries an independent risk of malignancy and therefore
multiple nodules may require FNA.
&
RECOMMENDATION 23
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
Given the low false-negative rate of US-guided FNA cy-
tology and the higher yield of missed malignancies based
(B) When multiple nodules ‡1 cm are present, FNA should
upon nodule sonographic pattern rather than growth, the
be performed preferentially based upon nodule sono-
follow-up of thyroid nodules with benign cytology diag-
graphic pattern and respective size cutoff (Table 6, Fig. 2).
noses should be determined by risk stratification based
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
upon US pattern.
(C) If none of the nodules has a high or moderate suspicion
(A) Nodules with high suspicion US pattern: repeat US and
sonographic pattern, and multiple sonographically similar
US-guided FNA within 12 months.
very low or low suspicion pattern nodules coalesce with no
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
intervening normal parenchyma, the likelihood of malig-
nancy is low and it is reasonable to aspirate the largest
(B) Nodules with low to intermediate suspicion US pat-
nodules (‡2 cm) or continue surveillance without FNA.
tern: repeat US at 12–24 months. If sonographic evidence
of growth (20% increase in at least two nodule dimensions
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
with a minimal increase of 2 mm or more than a 50%
change in volume) or development of new suspicious so-
&
RECOMMENDATION 22
nographic features, the FNA could be repeated or obser-
A low or low-normal serum TSH concentration in patients
vation continued with repeat US, with repeat FNA in case
with multiple nodules may suggest that some nodule(s)
of continued growth.
may be autonomous. In such cases, a radionuclide (pref-
erably 123I) thyroid scan should be considered and directly
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
compared to the US images to determine functionality of
(C) Nodules with very low suspicion US pattern (including
each nodule ‡1 cm. FNA should then be considered only
spongiform nodules): the utility of surveillance US and
for those isofunctioning or nonfunctioning nodules, among
assessment of nodule growth as an indicator for repeat
which those with high suspicion sonographic pattern
FNA to detect a missed malignancy is limited. If US is
should be aspirated preferentially.
repeated, it should be done at ‡24 months.
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
Patients with multiple thyroid nodules have the same risk
[A25] Recommendation for follow-up of nodules with two
of malignancy as those with solitary nodules (32,74). How-
benign FNA cytology results
ever, when evaluating the risk of cancer per individual nod-
ule, one large study found that a solitary nodule had a higher
(D) If a nodule has undergone repeat US-guided FNA with a
likelihood of malignancy than did a nonsolitary nodule
second benign cytology result, US surveillance for this nod-
( p < 0.01), although in agreement with the other studies the
ule for continued risk of malignancy is no longer indicated.
risk of malignancy per patient was the same and independent
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
of the number of nodules (77). A recent systematic review
and meta-analysis confirmed the slightly higher risk of ma-
Given that there is a low but discrete false-negative rate for
lignancy in a solitary nodule compared with an individual
nodules with benign FNA cytology results, is there an opti-
nodule in a MNG. However, this appeared to hold true mostly
mal way to identify these missed malignancies? Although the
outside of the United States and in iodine-deficient popula-
risk of malignancy after two benign cytology results is vir-
tions (235). A diagnostic US should be performed to evaluate
tually zero (129–133,236), routine rebiopsy is not a viable or
the sonographic risk pattern of each nodule, but if only the
cost-effective option because of the low false-negative rate of
‘‘dominant’’ or largest nodule is aspirated, the thyroid cancer
an US-guided FNA benign cytology result. Prior guidelines
may be missed (74). Therefore, multiple thyroid nodules
have recommended repeat FNA for nodules that grow during
‡1 cm may require aspiration, based on sonographic pattern
serial sonographic observation. However, nodule growth
(Recommendation 8, Table 6, Fig. 2) to fully exclude clini-
can be variably defined. Because of interobserver variation,
cally relevant thyroid cancer. Radionuclide scanning may
Brauer et al. (237) reported a 50% increase in nodule volume
also be considered in patients with multiple thyroid nodules
as the minimally significant reproducibly recorded change in
26
HAUGEN ET AL.
nodule size, which is equivalent to a 20% increase in two of
thyroid nodules with benign cytology diagnoses should be
the three nodule dimensions. If a 50% volume increase
determined by risk stratification based upon US pattern as
cutoff is applied, only 4%–10% of nodules were reported
defined in Recommendation 8. If follow-up US for surveil-
to be larger at a mean of 18 months (133,238). However,
lance is performed and the nodule size is stable, the utility of
using cutoffs of a 15% volume increase based upon inter-
subsequent US imaging for detection of potential malignancy
nally assessed interobserver coefficients of variation, pub-
by nodule growth assessment is very low and if performed, the
lished series report that 32%–50% of nodules increase in
time interval for any additional US exam should be at least as
size over a 4–5 year period (239,240). Because of the
long that between the initial benign FNA cytology result and
stringent methodology of these studies, adoption of a 15%
first follow-up. However, even if a repeat US is not indicated
volume increase as statistically significant is not practically
based on a benign cytology, US pattern, or stability in nodule
applicable.
size, larger nodules may require monitoring for growth that
A recent 5-year prospective multicenter study evaluated
could result in symptoms and thus prompt surgical interven-
outcomes of 1597 nodules from 992 patients with either cy-
tion despite benign cytology.
tologically or sonographically benign nodules (241). Nodules
One recent study evaluated the long-term consequences of
1 cm or larger underwent US-guided FNA and subcentimeter
a false-negative benign cytology (140). A total of 1369 pa-
nodules were defined as sonographically benign based upon
tients with 2010 cytologically benign thyroid nodules were
imaging characteristics equivalent to the ATA low or very
followed for a mean of 8.5 years. Eighteen false-negative
low suspicion US patterns. All nodules were followed by
cases were identified, although only a subset of patients un-
annual US exams. The false-negative rate of a benign cy-
derwent repeat FNA or thyroid surgery. Thirty deaths were
tology diagnosis was 1.1%. Of the four missed cancers, on
documented in the entire cohort over this time period and
baseline US imaging three were hypoechoic and solid and
none were attributable to thyroid cancer. These data sup-
one was isoechoic with microcalcifications; none was spon-
port that an initial benign cytology conveys an overall ex-
giform or mixed cystic solid and noncalcified (ATA very low
cellent prognosis and a conservative follow-up strategy is
suspicion pattern). During sonographic surveillance, repeat
reasonable.
FNA was prompted by either growth (two nodules) or de-
velopment of a new suspicious sonographic feature (two
[A26] Follow-up for nodules that do not meet FNA criteria
nodules). In addition, the shortest time interval to detect
change and repeat the FNA was 2 years. Another critical
&
RECOMMENDATION 24
observation from this study was that only one cancer was
Nodules may be detected on US that do not meet criteria
detected in 5 years among the 852 subcentimeter nodules
for FNA at initial imaging (Recommendation 8). The
classified as sonographicially benign at baseline. This cancer
strategy for sonographic follow-up of these nodules should
was identified on the 5-year follow-up US, when its com-
be based upon the nodule’s sonographic pattern.
position changed from mixed cystic/solid to hypoechoic solid
(A) Nodules with high suspicion US pattern: repeat US
with irregular margins prompting FNA (241). Currently,
in 6–12 months.
there are no follow-up studies of nodule growth that extend
observation beyond 5 years to help inform decision-making
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
about long-term surveillance. Additional research would be
(B) Nodules with low to intermediate suspicion US pat-
valuable because indefinite follow-up of nodules with benign
tern: consider repeat US at 12–24 months.
cytology is costly and may be unnecessary.
Recent investigations of repeat US-guided FNA in nodules
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
with initial benign cytology show higher detection rates for
(C) Nodules >1 cm with very low suspicion US pattern
missed malignancy for those nodules with a high suspicion so-
(including spongiform nodules) and pure cyst: the utility
nographic pattern rather than size increase (236,242). Kwak et al.
and time interval of surveillance US for risk of malignancy
(236) reported a significantly higher malignancy rate of 20.4% in
is not known. If US is repeated, it should be at ‡24 months.
nodules with benign cytology that exhibited either marked hy-
poechogenicity, irregular borders, microcalcifications, or a taller
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
than wide shape versus a 1.4% risk in those that exhibited a 15%
(D) Nodules £1 cm with very low suspicion US pattern
volume increase but lacked these US features. Importantly, the
(including spongiform nodules) and pure cysts do not re-
low risk of malignancy did not differ between US negative
quire routine sonographic follow-up.
nodules that grew and those that demonstrated no interval size
change (1.4% vs. 0.5%, p = 0.18). Similarly, Rosario et al. (242)
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
detected cancer in 17.4% of nodules with benign cytologic di-
agnoses and suspicious US features versus 1.3% of those without
Ultrasound studies demonstrate that up to 50% of adults have
suspicious characteristic that grew, using criteria of a 50% vol-
thyroid nodules. The vast majority of these are subcentimeter,
ume increase. These studies indicate that the use of suspi-
and FNA evaluation is generally not indicated. In addition,
cious US characteristics rather than nodule growth should
based upon both sonographic pattern and size cutoffs (Re-
be the indication for repeat FNA despite an initial benign
commendation 8), many nodules >1 cm may also be followed
cytology diagnosis. Repeat US and FNA should be repeated
without FNA. Although no prospective studies address the
within 12 months as guided by clinical judgement. Given
optimal cost-effective surveillance strategy for these nodules
the low false-negative rate of US-guided FNA cytology and
that have not undergone FNA, a recent study by Durante et al.
the higher yield of missed malignancies based upon nodule
(241) confirms that subcentimeter thyroid nodules corre-
sonographic pattern rather than growth, the follow-up of
sponding to the ATA very low suspicion risk pattern are highly
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
27
unlikely to change during 5-year sonographic follow-up, and
in doses that suppress the serum TSH to subnormal levels
the risk of malignancy is exceedingly low. The findings from
may result in a decrease in nodule size and may prevent the
studies correlating sonographic features and malignancy risk in
appearance of new nodules in regions of the world with
aspirated nodules can be extrapolated to inform a follow-up
borderline low iodine intake (239,243–245). However, the
strategy for this group of nodules that do not meet FNA criteria
effect is modest, with most studies suggesting an average
at the time of their initial detection. For example, the interval
5%–15% reduction in nodule volume when treated with
for follow-up sonography for a nodule that is hypoechoic and
suppressive levothyroxine (LT4) therapy for 6–18 months.
taller than wide should be shorter than that for an isoechoic
Two high-quality meta-analyses confirm that six to eight pa-
solid nodule with smooth borders.
tients will require suppressive LT4 therapy to achieve one
US-guided FNA should be performed based upon follow-
successful treatment response (246,247). The extent of TSH
up US imaging if the nodule subsequently meets criteria
suppression achieved in high-quality studies is variable, though
based upon Recommendation 8.
the majority suppressed TSH to <0.2 mIU/L, with many to <0.1
mIU/L. Hyperthyroidism to this degree has been significantly
[A27] What is the role of medical or surgical
associated with an increased risk of cardiac arrhythmias and
therapy for benign thyroid nodules?
osteoporosis, as well as adverse symptomatology. Together,
these data confirm that LT4 suppressive therapy demonstrates
&
RECOMMENDATION 25
modest (though usually clinically insignificant) efficacy in
Routine TSH suppression therapy for benign thyroid nod-
nodule volume reduction, but increases the risk of adverse
ules in iodine sufficient populations is not recommended.
consequences related to iatrogenic thyrotoxicosis. One large
Though modest responses to therapy can be detected, the
prospective, randomized trial demonstrated that sufficient die-
potential harm outweighs benefit for most patients.
tary iodine intake (150 lg daily) also reduced nodule size
slightly more than placebo (248). The consumption of adequate
(Strong recommendation, High-quality evidence)
dietary iodine is recommended for all adults and is without harm
when not excessive. Data supporting LT
&
RECOMMENDATION 26
4 therapy in non–TSH-
suppressive doses for prevention of thyroid nodule growth
Individual patients with benign, solid, or mostly solid
are incomplete. One recent cohort analysis suggested non-
nodules should have adequate iodine intake. If inadequate
suppressive doses of LT
dietary intake is found or suspected, a daily supplement
4 therapy conferred protection from
nodule growth over time (249). However, the nonblinded, non-
(containing 150 lg iodine) is recommended.
randomized nature of the trial precludes broad translation of the
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
data, and the efficacy of nonsuppressive LT4 remains unproven.
Cystic nodules that are cytologically benign can be monitored
&
RECOMMENDATION 27
for recurrence (fluid reaccumulation), which can be seen in
60%–90% of patients (250,251). For those patients with subse-
(A) Surgery may be considered for growing nodules that
quent recurrent symptomatic cystic fluid accumulation, surgical
are benign after repeat FNA if they are large (>4 cm),
removal, generally by hemithyroidectomy, or PEI are both rea-
causing compressive or structural symptoms, or based
sonable strategies. Four controlled studies demonstrated a 75%–
upon clinical concern.
85% success rate after PEI compared with a 7%–38% success
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
rate in controls treated by simple cyst evacuation or saline in-
jection. Success was achieved after an average of two PEI
(B) Patients with growing nodules that are benign after
treatments. Complications included mild to moderate local pain,
FNA should be regularly monitored. Most asymptomatic
flushing, dizziness, and dysphonia (250–253). Surgery may be
nodules demonstrating modest growth should be followed
considered for growing solid nodules that are benign on repeat
without intervention.
cytology if they are large (>4 cm), causing compressive or
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
structural symptoms, or based upon clinical concern (254,255).
&
RECOMMENDATION 28
[A28] How should thyroid nodules in pregnant
Recurrent cystic thyroid nodules with benign cytology
women be managed?
should be considered for surgical removal or percutaneous
ethanol injection (PEI) based on compressive symptoms
[A29] FNA for thyroid nodules discovered during preg-
and cosmetic concerns. Asymptomatic cystic nodules may
nancy
be followed conservatively.
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
&
RECOMMENDATION 30
&
RECOMMENDATION 29
(A) FNA of clinically relevant thyroid nodules (refer to
There are no data to guide recommendations on the use of
section [A10]) should be performed in euthyroid and hy-
thyroid hormone therapy in patients with growing nodules
pothyroid pregnant women.
that are benign on cytology.
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
(B) For women with suppressed serum TSH levels that
Evidence from multiple prospective, RCTs, and from three
persist beyond 16 weeks gestation, FNA may be deferred
meta-analyses suggest that thyroid hormone supplementation
until after pregnancy and cessation of lactation. At that
28
HAUGEN ET AL.
time, a radionuclide scan can be performed to evaluate
been limited in this cohort and therefore contributed to bio-
nodule function if the serum TSH remains suppressed.
chemical persistence of disease. Vannucchi et al. (263) fol-
lowed a small cohort of 10 patients with DTC during
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
pregnancy or within 1 year post partum, again noting a large
rate of persistent disease (60%) compared to nonpregnant
It is uncertain if thyroid nodules discovered in pregnant
controls (4.2%–13.1%). Similarly, the majority of cases with
women are more likely to be malignant than those found in
persistent disease were attributable to biochemical elevations
nonpregnant women, since there are no population-based
in Tg or anti-Tg antibodies, again raising the question of
studies to address this question. Pregnancy does not appear to
whether the extent of initial resection was limited in com-
modify microscopic cellular appearance, thus standard diag-
parison to nonpregnant controls. Given the likelihood that
nostic criteria should be applied for cytologic evaluation (256).
biochemical persistence could be attributable to an increased
Serial evaluation of nodules throughout pregnancy has dem-
size of remnant tissue or incomplete surgical resection in both
onstrated that thyroid nodules will enlarge slightly throughout
studies, these data should not refute previous, larger analyses
gestation, though this does not imply malignant transformation
showing no increased recurrence rates when DTC is diag-
(257). The recommended evaluation of a clinically relevant
nosed during pregnancy.
nodule in a pregnant patient is thus the same as for a non-
Theoretically, molecular marker analysis could be helpful
pregnant patient, with the exception that a radionuclide scan is
in the evaluation of DTC or clinically relevant, cytologically
contraindicated. In addition, for patients with nodules diag-
indeterminate thyroid nodules detected during pregnancy.
nosed as DTC by FNA during pregnancy, delaying surgery
However, the application of molecular testing in pregnant
until after delivery does not affect outcome (258). Surgery
women with indeterminate cytology remains uncertain.
performed during pregnancy is associated with greater risk of
There are no published data validating the performance of
complications, longer hospital stays, and higher costs (259).
any molecular marker in this population. Therefore, the
committee cannot recommend for or against their use in
[A30] Approaches to pregnant patients with malignant
pregnant women. However, it is theoretically possible that
or indeterminate cytology
changes in a nodule’s RNA expression may occur during
gestation altering performance of the 167 GEC while the
&
RECOMMENDATION 31
seven-gene mutational panel (BRAF, RAS, PAX8/PPARc,
PTC discovered by cytology in early pregnancy should
RET/PTC) would be more likely to demonstrate similar
be monitored sonographically. If it grows substantially
performance to that of a nonpregnant population.
(as defined in section [A24]) before 24–26 weeks ges-
When surgery is advised during pregnancy, it is most
tation, or if US reveals cervical lymph nodes that are
often because of high-risk clinical or sonographic findings,
suspicious for metastatic disease, surgery should be
nodule growth, or change over short duration follow-up or it
considered during pregnancy. However, if the disease
is based upon physician judgement. To minimize the risk of
remains stable by midgestation, or if it is diagnosed
miscarriage, surgery during pregnancy should be done in the
in the second half of pregnancy, surgery may be de-
second trimester before 24 weeks gestation (264). However,
ferred until after delivery.
PTC discovered during pregnancy does not behave more
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
aggressively than that diagnosed in a similar-aged group of
nonpregnant women (258,265). A retrospective study of
If FNA cytology is consistent with PTC, surgery is gener-
pregnant women with DTC found no difference in either
ally recommended. However, the decision to perform
recurrence or survival rates between women operated dur-
such surgery either during pregnancy or after delivery must be
ing or after pregnancy (258). Further, retrospective data
individualized. If surgery is not performed, the utility of
suggest that treatment delays of <1 year from the time of
thyroid hormone therapy targeted to lower serum TSH levels
thyroid cancer discovery do not adversely affect patient
to improve the prognosis of thyroid cancer diagnosed during
outcome (266). A separate study reported a higher rate of
gestation is not known. Because higher serum TSH levels may
complications in pregnant women undergoing thyroid sur-
be correlated with a more advanced stage of cancer at surgery
gery compared with nonpregnant women (267). If FNA
(260), if the patient’s serum TSH is >2 mU/L, it may be rea-
cytology is indeterminate, monitoring may be considered
sonable to initiate thyroid hormone therapy to maintain the
with further evaluation may be delayed until after delivery.
TSH between 0.3 to 2.0 mU/L for the remainder of gestation.
Some experts recommend thyroid hormone suppression
Most data confirm that the prognosis of women with well-
therapy for pregnant women with FNA suspicious for or
differentiated thyroid cancer identified but not treated during
diagnostic of PTC, if surgery is deferred until the postpar-
pregnancy is similar to that of nonpregnant patients. Because
tum period (259).
of this, surgery in most pregnant patients is deferred until
postpartum (258,261), and no further testing is required.
[B1] DIFFERENTIATED THYROID CANCER:
However, some studies differ from these findings. Two Ital-
INITIAL MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
ian cohort studies have investigated women diagnosed with
DTC in relation to the timing of pregnancy. Messuti et al.
Differentiated thyroid cancer, arising from thyroid follic-
(262) noted a statistically higher rate of persistence/recur-
ular epithelial cells, accounts for the vast majority of thyroid
rence when DTC was diagnosed during pregnancy or within 2
cancers. Of the differentiated cancers, papillary cancer
years postpartum. However, the stimulated Tg was found to
comprises about 85% of cases compared to about 12% that
be >10 ng/mL during 131I ablation in many cases, suggesting
have follicular histology, including conventional and onco-
the extent of thyroidectomy and/or tumor resection may have
cytic (Hu¨rthle cell) carcinomas, and <3% that are poorly
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
29
differentiated tumors (268). In general, stage for stage, the
patients, but interpretation may be difficult in patients with
prognoses of PTC and follicular cancer are similar (266,269).
an intact thyroid gland.
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
[B2] Goals of initial therapy of DTC
The basic goals of initial therapy for patients with DTC are
Differentiated thyroid carcinoma (particularly papillary car-
to improve overall and disease-specific survival, reduce the
cinoma) involves cervical lymph node metastases in 20%–50%
risk of persistent/recurrent disease and associated morbidity,
of patients in most series using standard pathologic techniques
and permit accurate disease staging and risk stratification,
(84,145,281–283), and it may be present even when the primary
while minimizing treatment-related morbidity and unneces-
tumor is small and intrathyroidal (284). The frequency of mi-
sary therapy. The specific goals of initial therapy are to
crometastases (<2 mm) may approach 90%, depending on the
1. Remove the primary tumor, disease that has extended
sensitivity of the detection method (285,286). However, the
beyond the thyroid capsule, and clinically significant
clinical implications of micrometastases are likely less signifi-
lymph node metastases. Completeness of surgical re-
cant compared to macrometastases. Preoperative US identifies
section is an important determinant of outcome, while
suspicious cervical adenopathy in 20%–31% of cases, poten-
residual metastatic lymph nodes represent the most com-
tially altering the surgical approach (287,288) in as many as
mon site of disease persistence/recurrence (270–272).
20% of patients (289–291). However, preoperative US identifies
2. Minimize the risk of disease recurrence and metastatic
only half of the lymph nodes found at surgery, due to the
spread. Adequate surgery is the most important treat-
presence of the overlying thyroid gland (292).
ment variable influencing prognosis, while RAI treat-
Sonographic features suggestive of abnormal metastatic
ment, TSH suppression, and other treatments each play
lymph nodes include enlargement, loss of the fatty hilum, a
adjunctive roles in at least some patients (273–275).
rounded rather than oval shape, hyperechogenicity, cystic
3. Facilitate postoperative treatment with RAI, where
change, calcifications, and peripheral vascularity (Table 7).
appropriate. For patients undergoing RAI remnant
No single sonographic feature is adequately sensitive for
ablation, or RAI treatment of presumed (adjuvant
detection of lymph nodes with metastatic thyroid cancer. One
therapy) or known (therapy) residual or metastatic
study correlated the sonographic features acquired 4 days
disease, removal of all normal thyroid tissue is an
preoperatively directly with the histology of 56 cervical
important element of initial surgery (276).
lymph nodes identified in 19 patients. Some of the most
4. Permit accurate staging and risk stratification of the
specific criteria were short axis >5 mm (96%), presence of
disease. Because disease staging and risk stratification
cystic areas (100%), presence of hyperechogenic punctua-
should be used to guide initial prognostication, disease
tions representing either colloid or microcalcifications
management, and follow-up strategies, accurate post-
(100%), and peripheral vascularity (82%). Of these, the only
operative risk assessment is a crucial element in the
one with sufficient sensitivity was peripheral vascularity
management of patients with DTC (277,278).
(86%). The others had sensitivities of <60% and would not be
5. Permit accurate long-term surveillance for disease re-
adequate to use as a single criterion for identification of
currence.
malignant involvement (292). As shown by earlier studies
6. Minimize treatment-related morbidity. The extent of
(293,294), the ultrasonographic feature with the highest
surgery and the experience of the surgeon both play
sensitivity is absence of a hilum (100%), but this has a low
important roles in determining the risk of surgical
specificity of 29%. Microcalcifications have the highest
complications (232,233,279,280).
specificity; any lymph nodes with microcalcifications should
be considered abnormal (292) (Table 7).
The location of the lymph nodes may also be useful for
[B3] What is the role of preoperative staging
decision-making. Malignant lymph nodes are much more
with diagnostic imaging and laboratory tests?
likely to occur in levels III, IV, and VI than in level II (Fig. 3)
[B4] Neck imaging—ultrasound
(292,294), although this may not be true for PTC tumors
arising in the upper pole of the thyroid, which have a higher
propensity to demonstrate skip metastases to levels III and II
&
RECOMMENDATION 32
(295). Figure 3 illustrates the delineation of cervical lymph
(A) Preoperative neck US for cervical (central and especially
node levels I through VI.
lateral neck compartments) lymph nodes is recommended
Confirmation of malignancy in lymph nodes with a sus-
for all patients undergoing thyroidectomy for malignant or
picious sonographic appearance is achieved by US-guided
suspicious for malignancy cytologic or molecular findings.
FNA aspiration for cytology and/or measurement of Tg in the
needle washout. A Tg concentration <1 ng/mL is reassuring,
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
and the probability of N1 disease increases with higher Tg
(B) US-guided FNA of sonographically suspicious lymph
levels (296). This FNA measurement of Tg is likely valid
nodes ‡8–10 mm in the smallest diameter should be per-
even in patients with circulating anti-Tg autoantibodies
formed to confirm malignancy if this would change man-
(297,298), although one study challenges the validity of this
agement.
measurement in patients with anti-Tg autoantibodies (299).
Tg washout may be helpful, particularly in cases in which
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
the lymph nodes are cystic, cytologic evaluation of the
(C) The addition of FNA-Tg washout in the evaluation of
lymph node is inadequate, or the cytologic and sonographic
suspicious cervical lymph nodes is appropriate in select
evaluations are divergent (i.e., normal cytologic biopsy of
30
HAUGEN ET AL.
FIG. 3.
Lymph node compartments separated into levels and sublevels. Level VI contains the thyroid gland, and the
adjacent nodes bordered superiorly by the hyoid bone, inferiorly by the innominate (brachiocephalic) artery, and laterally on
each side by the carotid sheaths. The level II, III, and IV nodes are arrayed along the jugular veins on each side, bordered
anteromedially by level VI and laterally by the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The level III nodes are
bounded superiorly by the level of the hyoid bone and inferiorly by the cricoid cartilage; levels II and IV are above and
below level III, respectively. The level I node compartment includes the submental and submandibular nodes, above the
hyoid bone, and anterior to the posterior edge of the submandibular gland. Finally, the level V nodes are in the posterior
triangle, lateral to the lateral edge of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Levels I, II, and V can be further subdivided as noted
in the figure. The inferior extent of level VI is defined as the suprasternal notch. Many authors also include the pretracheal
and paratracheal superior mediastinal lymph nodes above the level of the innominate artery (sometimes referred to as level
VII) in central neck dissection (341).
a large lymph node with microcalcifications) (300). In a
tumor in DTC (306). Because metastatic disease may respond
retrospective study of 241 lymph nodes in 220 patients who
to RAI therapy, removal of the thyroid as well as the primary
underwent US-guided FNA with Tg in FNA (FNA-Tg)
tumor and accessible loco-regional disease remains an im-
washout fluid measurements for suspicious lymph nodes,
portant component of initial treatment even in most patients
additional FNA-Tg helped to diagnose a metastatic lymph
with metastatic disease.
node with one or two suspicious US features but did not offer
incremental benefit for those lymph nodes with highly sus-
[B5] Neck imaging—CT/MRI/PET
picious US features in which FNA alone was sufficient for
diagnosis. Two recent systematic reviews showed that false-
&
RECOMMENDATION 33
positive Tg washout may occur, particularly in lymph nodes
(A) Preoperative use of cross-sectional imaging studies
in the central compartment when the thyroid gland is still
(CT, MRI) with intravenous (IV) contrast is recommended
present (301,302). The review by Pak et al. (302) suggests
as an adjunct to US for patients with clinical suspicion for
that an FNA-Tg cutoff of 32 ng/mL has the best sensitivity
advanced disease, including invasive primary tumor, or
and specificity in patients with an intact thyroid gland. Others
clinically apparent multiple or bulky lymph node involve-
have suggested interpreting the FNA-Tg in context of the
ment.
serum Tg and TSH in these patients (303,304). There is no
standardization of FNA-Tg procedures or assays to date,
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
which makes this additional diagnostic tool sometimes dif-
(B) Routine preoperative 18FDG-PET scanning is not rec-
ficult to interpret (305). Future standardization including
ommended.
matrix type (phosphate-buffered saline, Tg-free serum, etc.)
and volume of diluent matrix would help with interpretation
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
of a Tg washout.
Accurate staging is important in determining the prognosis
Since US evaluation is operator dependent and cannot al-
and tailoring treatment for patients with DTC. However,
ways adequately image deep anatomic structures and those
unlike many tumor types, the presence of metastatic disease
acoustically shadowed by bone or air, alternative imaging
does not obviate the need for surgical excision of the primary
procedures may be preferable or useful as an adjunct in
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
31
some clinical settings. Patients displaying bulky or widely
extension that involves muscle and/or blood vessels. Pre-
distributed nodal disease on initial US examination may
operative knowledge of these features of the primary tumor
present with involvement of nodal regions beyond typical
or metastases could significantly influence the surgical plan
cervical regions, some of which maybe difficult to visualize
(314). 18FDG-PET scanning may be sensitive in some pa-
on routine preoperative US, including the mediastinum, infra-
tients for neck or mediastinal involvement and may reveal
clavicular, retropharyngeal, and parapharyngeal regions. In a
distant metastases as well.
study of 37 consecutive patients who had preoperative CT
When cross-sectional imaging is performed, use of IV
and US and subsequently underwent total thyroidectomy and
contrast is an important adjunct because it helps to delineate
neck dissection, the sensitivity of CT was better than US for
the anatomic relationship between the primary tumor or
the evaluation central and lateral compartment lymph nodes
metastatic disease and these other structures. Iodine is gen-
examined together (77% vs 62%, p = 0.002), but there were
erally cleared within 4–8 weeks in most patients, so concern
no differences between the two imaging modalities when the
about iodine burden from IV contrast causing a clinically
central and lateral compartments were examined separately
significant delay in subsequent whole-body scans (WBSs) or
(307). In a series of 299 consecutively registered patients
RAI treatment after the imaging followed by surgery is gen-
with pathologically proven PTC who underwent preoperative
erally unfounded (315). The benefit gained from improved
CT and US, US was more accurate than CT in predicting
anatomic imaging generally outweighs any potential risk of a
extrathyroidal tumor extension and multifocal bilobar dis-
several week delay in RAI imaging or therapy. When there is
ease ( p < 0.05). The accuracy of staging was better overall
concern, a urinary iodine to creatinine ratio can be measured.
with US ( p < 0.01), and US had greater sensitivity than CT at
predicting lateral compartment metastases ( p = 0.041) (308).
[B6] Measurement of serum Tg and anti-Tg antibodies
However, another study showed that combined preopera-
tive mapping with US and CT was superior to US alone in
&
RECOMMENDATION 34
the preoperative detection of nodal disease, especially in the
Routine preoperative measurement of serum Tg or anti-Tg
central neck (309). The sensitivities of MRI and PET for
antibodies is not recommended.
the detection of cervical lymph node metastases are relatively
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
low (30%–40%) (310). PET can also detect inflammatory
lymph nodes, which reduces the specificity of this test in
Data from a systematic review and meta-analysis sug-
many patients with DTC. MRI can be used in the detection of
gested that high preoperative concentrations of serum Tg
cervical nodal metastasis. MRI is affected by respiratory
may predict a higher sensitivity for postoperative surveil-
artifacts and may be more difficult to interpret than CT
lance with serum Tg (316). Preoperative anti-Tg antibodies
scanning by surgeons in the operating room for low-volume
do not appear to be an independent preoperative predictor of
nodal disease (311).
stage in patients with DTC, but the evidence is limited. In a
Invasive DTC has been reported to occur in 10%–15% of
cross-sectional analysis of 1770 patients with perioperative
patients at the time of diagnosis (312). For this group of
anti-Tg antibodies status data in the National Thyroid Cancer
patients, cross-sectional imaging can also be a useful sup-
Treatment Cooperative Study (a large thyroid cancer registry
plement for preoperative planning to accurately delineate the
that included 11 North American centers and enrolled pa-
extent of laryngeal, tracheal, esophageal, or vascular in-
tients between 1987 and 2011), serum anti-Tg antibody status
volvement (309,313). Endoscopy of the trachea and or
was not significantly associated with stage of disease on
esophagus, with or without ultrasonography, at the beginning
multivariate analysis, or with disease-free or overall survival
of the initial operation looking for evidence of intraluminal
on univariate or multivariate analyses (317). Evidence that
extension can also be helpful in cases of suspected areodi-
preoperative measurement of serum Tg impacts patient
gestive tract invasion.
management or outcomes is not yet available.
Locally invasive primary tumors may be associated with
characteristic signs and symptoms including progressive
[B7] Operative approach for a biopsy diagnostic for follic-
dysphagia, respiratory compromise, hemoptysis, rapid tumor
ular cell–derived malignancy
enlargement, significant voice change or the finding of vocal
cord paralysis, and mass fixation to the airway or neck
&
RECOMMENDATION 35
structures. Certain sonographic features of the primary tu-
mor, including extrathyroidal extension especially with
(A) For patients with thyroid cancer >4 cm, or with gross
posterior capsular extension and extension into the medias-
extrathyroidal extension (clinical T4), or clinically appar-
tinum, may also prompt axial imaging (307). Chest CT is
ent metastatic disease to nodes (clinical N1) or distant sites
useful in defining the inferior border of disease and in de-
(clinical M1), the initial surgical procedure should include
termining the extent to which mediastinal structures are in-
a near-total or total thyroidectomy and gross removal of all
volved in cases with significant caudal spread. CT findings
primary tumor unless there are contraindications to this
may influence management by indicating the need for ster-
procedure.
notomy and/or tracheal or laryngeal resection/reconstruction,
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
which would likely require assembling additional resources
and personnel in preparation for surgery. Neck CT with
(B) For patients with thyroid cancer >1 cm and <4 cm
contrast can therefore be useful in delineating the extent of
without extrathyroidal extension, and without clinical evi-
laryngeal, tracheal, and/or esophageal involvement in tumors
dence of any lymph node metastases (cN0), the initial
displaying aggressive local invasion, as well as delineating
surgical procedure can be either a bilateral procedure (near-
bulky nodal disease, which may harbor significant extranodal
total or total thyroidectomy) or a unilateral procedure
32
HAUGEN ET AL.
(lobectomy). Thyroid lobectomy alone may be sufficient
recurrence were seen for all sizes >1 cm based on the extent
initial treatment for low-risk papillary and follicular car-
of initial surgery. However, data on extrathyroidal extension,
cinomas; however, the treatment team may choose total
completeness of resection, and other comorbid conditions,
thyroidectomy to enable RAI therapy or to enhance follow-
which could have had a major impact on survival and re-
up based upon disease features and/or patient preferences.
currence risk, were not available. Therefore, it is unclear how
often lobectomy was done based on proper selection of low to
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
intermediate risk patients versus how often lobectomy was
(C) If surgery is chosen for patients with thyroid cancer
done in high-risk patients because of comorbid conditions,
<1 cm without extrathyroidal extension and cN0, the initial
inability to obtain a complete resection, or status of the
surgical procedure should be a thyroid lobectomy unless
contralateral RLN. This is an important distinction because
there are clear indications to remove the contralateral lobe.
thyroid lobectomy patients were found to have extrathyroidal
Thyroid lobectomy alone is sufficient treatment for small,
extension in 7% of cases (325), underwent external beam
unifocal, intrathyroidal carcinomas in the absence of prior
radiation therapy (EBRT) in 1%–2% (324), and RAI therapy
head and neck radiation, familial thyroid carcinoma, or
in 12%–18% (318,325), and high-risk features were present
clinically detectable cervical nodal metastases.
in 8% (325). Given the small magnitude of differences re-
ported for survival and recurrence between the total thyroid-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
ectomy and the lobectomy patients, it is quite possible that the
slightly poorer outcomes seen in the lobectomy group could
Surgery for thyroid cancer is an important element of a
have been influenced by lobectomy patients with concurrent
multifaceted treatment approach. The operation must be
high risk features. Adam et al. (327) performed an updated
compatible with the overall treatment strategy and follow-up
analysis of 61,775 patients in the National Cancer Database
plan recommended by the managing team. Consideration
who underwent thyroid surgery between 1998 and 2006. The
should be given to referring patients with high-risk features
researchers demonstrated that the overall survival advantage
(clinical N1 disease, concern for recurrent laryngeal nerve
seen for patients with 1–4 cm PTC who underwent thyroid-
[RLN] involvement, or grossly invasive disease) to experi-
ectomy in the study by Bilimoria et al. (318) disappeared
enced surgeons, as both completeness of surgery and expe-
when further adjustment was made for additional variables
rience of the surgeon can have a significant impact on clinical
related to complexity and severity of illness. This lack of
outcomes and complication rates (232,233,279,280). Pre-
overall survival advantage was also seen when the group was
vious guidelines have endorsed total thyroidectomy as the
subdivided into patients with 1–2 cm and 2–4 cm PTC.
primary initial surgical treatment option for nearly all DTCs
Previously, Haigh et al. (325) had analyzed 5432 PTC
>1 cm with or without evidence of loco-regional or distant
patients from the SEER database (4612 receiving total thy-
metastases (25). This was based on retrospective data sug-
roidectomy and 820 undergoing lobectomy) and found no
gesting that a bilateral surgical procedure would improve
difference in 10-year overall survival between total thyroid-
survival (318), decrease recurrence rates (319–321), allow
ectomy and thyroid lobectomy when risk stratified by the
for routine use of RAI remnant ablation, and facilitate de-
AMES classification system. Interestingly, patients selected
tection of recurrent/persistent disease during follow-up.
for thyroid lobectomy included 7% with extrathyroidal ex-
However, recent data have demonstrated that in properly
tension, 1% with distant metastases, and 5% with primary
selected patients, clinical outcomes are very similar follow-
tumors >5 cm, and 8% were classified as having high risk
ing unilateral or bilateral thyroid surgery (322–326). Fur-
based on AMES.
thermore, since the requirement for routine use of RAI
More recently, two additional studies have analyzed the
ablation was one of the major reasons given in support of total
SEER database, and both have failed to demonstrate a sig-
thyroidectomy in low to intermediate risk patients, our cur-
nificant difference in survival when comparing total thy-
rent more selective approach to RAI ablation in these patients
roidectomy with thyroid lobectomy (323,324). Barney et al.
requires a critical reassessment of this indication. In some
(323) included 23,605 DTC patients diagnosed between 1983
patients, the presence of the remaining lobe of the gland may
and 2002 (12,598 with total thyroidectomy, 3266 with lo-
obviate the lifelong need for exogenous thyroid hormone
bectomy) and found no difference in 10-year overall survival
therapy. Finally, as our follow-up management paradigm has
(90.4% for total thyroidectomy vs. 90.8% for lobectomy) or
moved away from diagnostic whole body RAI scanning and
10-year cause-specific survival (96.8% for total thyroidec-
toward a greater reliance on neck ultrasonography and serial
tomy vs. 98.6% for lobectomy). Furthermore, in a multivar-
serum Tg measurements (even in patients that did not receive
iate analysis that included age, T, N, M, sex, year of
RAI remnant ablation), we must also question whether total
diagnosis, extent of surgery, and RAI use, no difference in
thyroidectomy and RAI remnant ablation is required to fa-
overall survival or cause specific survival was seen with re-
cilitate follow-up in low to intermediate risk patients.
spect to the extent of initial surgery. Mendelsohn et al. (324)
In an analysis of 52,173 PTC patients diagnosed between
analyzed 22,724 PTC patients diagnosed between 1998 and
1985 and 1998 from the National Cancer Data Base (43,227
2001 (16,760 with total thyroidectomy, 5964 with lobecto-
receiving total thyroidectomy, 8946 undergoing lobectomy),
my) and found no differences in overall survival or disease-
Bilimoria et al. (318) demonstrated a slightly higher 10-year
specific survival in a comparison of total thyroidectomy with
relative overall survival for total thyroidectomy as opposed to
lobectomy. Interestingly, of the patients that had lobectomy,
thyroid lobectomy (98.4% vs. 97.1%, respectively, p < 0.05)
1.6% received external beam radiation therapy, 16% had
and a slightly lower 10-year recurrence rate (7.7% vs. 9.8%,
extrathryoidal extension, 9% of tumors were >4 cm, and 20%
respectively, p < 0.05). When analyzed by size of the primary
received RAI ablation (once again indicating that lobectomy
tumor, statistically significant differences in survival and
was done in some high-risk patients).
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
33
Consistent with the SEER data analyses, two single-center
favorable patient outcomes, especially with regard to RLN
studies also confirmed that lobectomy is associated with
injury and wound complications. This was especially pro-
excellent survival in properly selected patients (322,326).
nounced for patients undergoing total thyroidectomy for thyroid
After a median follow-up of 8 years, only one disease-
cancer. Others have made similar observations (233,329,330).
specific death was seen in a cohort of 889 PTC patients with
In a recent study of patients undergoing thyroidectomy in the
T1–T2 tumors treated with either total thyroidectomy
Health Care Utilization Project Nationwide Inpatient Sample
(n = 528) or lobectomy (n = 361) (326). Furthermore, Mat-
(HCUP-NIS), surgeons were divided into categories of low (<10
suzu et al. (322) reported a cause-specific survival rate of
cases/year; encompassing 6072 surgeons), intermediate (10–
98% after a median of 17 years of follow-up in properly select
100 cases/year; 11,544 surgeons), and high volume (>100 cases/
PTC patients treated with lobectomy and ipsilateral neck
year; 4009 surgeons) (331). Over 80% of thyroid resections
dissection.
were performed by low- and intermediate-volume surgeons. On
Given the propensity for PTC to be multifocal (often in-
average, high-volume surgeons had the lowest complication
volving both lobes), it is not surprising that some studies have
rates for patients who underwent total thyroidectomy for cancer
demonstrated a lower risk of loco-regional disease recurrence
at 7.5%; intermediate-volume surgeons had a rate of 13.4%, and
following total thyroidectomy as compared to thyroid lo-
low-volume surgeons, 18.9% ( p < 0.001).
bectomy (319–321). However, with proper patient selection,
From robust population-level data such as these, it can be
loco-regional recurrence rates of less than 1%–4% and
concluded that referral of patients to high-volume thyroid
completion thyroidectomy rates of <10% can be achieved
surgeons is associated, on average, with superior outcomes.
following thyroid lobectomy (326,328). Furthermore, the few
However, such referral is not always possible, given the
recurrences that develop during long-term follow-up are
relative scarcity of high-volume surgeons and their geo-
readily detected and appropriately treated with no impact on
graphic distribution. In addition, there are some data sug-
survival (322,326,328).
gesting that other factors, such as surgeon age, should be
Therefore, we conclude that in properly selected low- to
considered (332). Therefore, conclusions at a population le-
intermediate-risk patients (patients with unifocal tumors
vel cannot always be applied to individual surgeons and pa-
<4 cm, and no evidence of extrathyroidal extension or
tient circumstances. It may, however, be reasonable to
lymph node metastases by examination or imaging), the
consider sending patients with more extensive disease and
extent of initial thyroid surgery probably has little impact on
concern for grossly invasive disease to a high-volume sur-
disease-specific survival. While recurrence rates can be
geon experienced in the management of advanced thyroid
quite low in these patients, it is likely that the lowest rates of
cancer.
recurrence during long-term follow-up would be associated
It is worth noting that even high-volume surgeons have a
with a total thyroidectomy. But since salvage therapy is
higher overall postoperative complication rate when per-
quite effective in the few patients that recur after thyroid
forming total thyroidectomy compared with lobectomy
lobectomy, a conservative management approach to com-
(333). Using the HCUP-NIS, these authors found that high-
pletion surgery, accepting a slightly higher risk of loco-
volume thyroid surgeons had a complication rate of 7.6%
regional recurrence, is a reasonable management strategy.
following thyroid lobectomy but a rate of 14.5% following
Finally, a more selective use of RAI coupled with a greater
total thyroidectomy. For low-volume surgeons, the compli-
reliance on neck US and serial serum Tg measurements for
cation rates were 11.8% and 24.1%, respectively. Therefore,
detection of recurrent disease is likely to significantly de-
patients should carefully weigh the relative benefits and risks
crease the mandate for total thyroidectomies in low- and
of total thyroidectomy versus thyroid lobectomy, even when
intermediate-risk patients done solely to facilitate RAI
surgery is performed by high-volume surgeons.
remnant ablation and follow-up.
Near-total or total thyroidectomy is necessary if the overall
[B8] Lymph node dissection
strategy is to include RAI therapy postoperatively, and thus is
recommended if the primary thyroid carcinoma is >4 cm, if
&
RECOMMENDATION 36
there is gross extrathyroidal extension, or if regional or dis-
tant metastases are clinically present. For tumors that are
(A) Therapeutic central-compartment (level VI) neck
between 1 and 4 cm in size, either a bilateral thyroidectomy
dissection for patients with clinically involved central
(total or near-total) or a unilateral procedure (thyroid lobec-
nodes should accompany total thyroidectomy to provide
tomy) may be suitable as treatment plan. Older age (>45
clearance of disease from the central neck.
years), contralateral thyroid nodules, a personal history of
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
radiation therapy to the head and neck, and familial DTC may
be criteria for recommending a bilateral procedure because of
(B) Prophylactic central-compartment neck dissection
plans for RAI therapy or to facilitate follow-up strategies or
(ipsilateral or bilateral) should be considered in patients
address suspicions of bilateral disease (270,278,322,326).
with papillary thyroid carcinoma with clinically unin-
The relationship between surgeon volume and patient
volved central neck lymph nodes (cN0) who have ad-
outcomes has been studied extensively over the last 20 years.
vanced primary tumors (T3 or T4) or clinically involved
Institutional studies examining outcomes following thy-
lateral neck nodes (cN1b), or if the information will be
roidectomy by high-volume surgeons have been published
used to plan further steps in therapy.
demonstrating overall safety. In one of the first studies ex-
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
amining the relationship between surgeon volume and thy-
roidectomy outcomes at a state level, Sosa et al. (232) found a
(C) Thyroidectomy without prophylactic central neck
strong association between higher surgeon volume and
dissection is appropriate for small (T1 or T2), noninvasive,
34
HAUGEN ET AL.
clinically node-negative PTC (cN0) and for most
or prophylactic) can be achieved with low morbidity by ex-
follicular cancers.
perienced thyroid surgeons (349–351). The value for an in-
dividual patient depends upon the utility of the staging
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
information to the treatment team in specific patient cir-
cumstances (351,352). Based on limited and imperfect
&
RECOMMENDATION 37
data, prophylactic dissection has been suggested to improve
Therapeutic lateral neck compartmental lymph node dis-
disease-specific survival (353), local recurrence (345,354),
section should be performed for patients with biopsy-proven
and post-treatment Tg levels (345,355). It has also been used
metastatic lateral cervical lymphadenopathy.
to inform the use of adjuvant RAI (344,347,350,356) and
improve the accuracy of the estimates of risk of recurrence
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
(356–358). However, in several studies, prophylactic dis-
section has shown no improvement in long-term patient
Regional lymph node metastases are present at the time of
outcome, while increasing the likelihood of temporary mor-
diagnosis in a majority of patients with papillary carcinomas
bidity, including hypocalcemia, although prophylactic dis-
and a lesser proportion of patients with follicular carcinomas
section may decrease the need for repeated RAI treatments
(290,334,335). Although PTC lymph node metastases are
(334,346,347,349,359–364).
reported by some to have no clinically important effect on
The removal of cN0 level VI lymph nodes detects a sub-
outcome in low risk patients, a study of the SEER database
stantial number of patients with pN1 disease; however, the
found, among 9904 patients with PTC, that lymph node
direct effect of this on long-term outcome is small at best
metastases, age >45 years, distant metastasis, and large tumor
(365,366). The use of staging information for the planning of
size significantly predicted poor overall survival outcome in a
adjuvant therapy depends upon whether this information will
multivariate analysis (336). All-cause survival at 14 years
affect the team-based decision-making for the individual
was 82% for PTC without lymph node metastases and 79%
patient. For these reasons, groups may elect to include pro-
with nodal metastases ( p < 0.05). Another SEER registry
phylactic dissection for patients with some prognostic fea-
study concluded that cervical lymph node metastases con-
tures associated with an increased risk of metastasis and
ferred an independent risk of decreased survival, but only in
recurrence (older or very young age, larger tumor size,
patients with follicular cancer and patients with papillary
multifocal disease, extrathyroidal extension, known lateral
cancer over age 45 years (337). However, characteristics of the
node metastases) to contribute to decision-making and dis-
lymph node metastases can further discriminate the risk of
ease control (345,351,355). Alternatively, some groups may
recurrence to the patient, especially in patients with clinically
apply prophylactic level VI dissection to patients with better
evident metastasis, multiple metastases, larger metastases,
prognostic features if the patient is to have a bilateral thy-
and/or extracapsular nodal extension (338,339), compared
roidectomy, and if the nodal staging information will be used
with those with more limited microscopic nodal disease (335).
to inform the decision regarding use of adjuvant therapy
A recent comprehensive analysis of the National Cancer Data
(344,350,356). Finally, for some groups it appears reasonable
Base and SEER, however, showed a small but significantly
to use a selective approach that applies level VI lymph node
increased risk of death for patients younger than 45 years with
dissection at the time of initial operation only to patients with
lymph node metastases compared with younger patients
clinically evident disease based on preoperative physical
without involved lymph nodes, and that having incrementally
exam, preoperative radiographic evaluation, or intraoperative
more metastatic lymph nodes up to six involved nodes confers
demonstration of detectable disease (cN1) (335,359,367).
additional mortality risk in this age group (340). This study
The information from prophylactic central neck dissection
underlines the importance of rigorous preoperative screening
must be used cautiously for staging information. Since mi-
for nodal metastases and potentially raises questions about
croscopic nodal positivity occurs frequently, prophylactic
current thyroid cancer staging systems. Common to all of
dissection often converts patients from clinical N0 to path-
these studies is the conclusion that the effect of the presence or
ologic N1a, upstaging many patients over age 45 from
absence of lymph node metastases on overall survival, if
American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) stage I to stage
present, is small.
III (334,344–347). However, microscopic nodal positivity
The cervical node sites are well-defined (341), and the
does not carry the recurrence risk of macroscopic clinically
most common site of nodal metastases is in the central neck,
detectable disease (335). Thus microscopic nodal upstaging
which is cervical level VI (Fig. 3). A recent consensus con-
may lead to excess RAI utilization and patient follow-up.
ference statement describes the relevant anatomy of the
Alternatively, the demonstration of uninvolved lymph nodes
central neck compartment, delineates the nodal subgroups
by prophylactic dissection may decrease the use of RAI for
within the central compartment commonly involved with
some groups (344,350,356). These effects may account for
thyroid cancer, and defines the terminology relevant to cen-
some of the existing extreme variability in utilization of RAI
tral compartment neck dissection (342). In many patients,
for thyroid cancer (368).
lymph node metastases in this area do not appear abnormal on
Studies of the BRAFV600E mutation have suggested an
preoperative imaging (289,334,343–345) or by inspection at
association between presence of the mutation and the risk of
the time of surgery (335), defining a cN0 group.
nodal disease (369–371), although results across all patients
The role of therapeutic lymph node dissection for treatment
with papillary thyroid carcinoma are mixed (372–375).
of thyroid cancer nodal metastases is well accepted for cN1
However, the presence of a BRAFV600E mutation has a limited
disease (336,346–348). However, the value of routine pro-
PPV for recurrence and therefore, BRAFV600E mutation status
phylactic level VI (central) neck dissection for cN0 disease
in the primary tumor should not impact the decision for
remains unclear. Central compartment dissection (therapeutic
prophylactic central neck dissection (376).
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
35
The preceding recommendations should be interpreted in
contraindications or declined completion thyroidectomy,
light of available surgical expertise. For patients with small,
the remnant ablation success rate was significantly higher
noninvasive, cN0 tumors, the balance of risk and benefit may
using 100 mCi (75% success rate; 1 mCi = 37 MBq),
favor thyroid lobectomy and close intraoperative inspection
compared with 30 mCi (54%), although mild to moderate
of the central compartment, with the plan adjusted to total
short-term neck pain was more frequently reported in the
thyroidectomy with compartmental dissection only in the
high-dose group (66%) compared with the low-dose group
presence of involved lymph nodes.
(51%) (387). Prednisone treatment for neck pain was used
Lymph nodes in the lateral neck (compartments II–V, Fig.
more frequently in the high-dose group (36% of patients)
3), level VII (anterior mediastinum), and rarely in level I may
than in the low-dose group.
also be involved by thyroid cancer (282,335,377,378). For
patients in whom nodal disease is evident clinically on pre-
[B10] What is the appropriate perioperative
operative US and nodal FNA cytology or Tg washout mea-
approach to voice and parathyroid issues?
surement or at the time of surgery, surgical resection by
[B11] Preoperative care communication
compartmental node dissection may reduce the risk of re-
currence and possibly mortality (379–381).
&
RECOMMENDATION 39
[B9] Completion thyroidectomy
Prior to surgery, the surgeon should communicate with
the patient regarding surgical risks, including nerve and
&
RECOMMENDATION 38
parathyroid injury, through the informed consent process
and communicate with associated physicians, including
(A) Completion thyroidectomy should be offered to pa-
anesthesia personnel, regarding important findings elicited
tients for whom a bilateral thyroidectomy would have been
during the preoperative workup.
recommended had the diagnosis been available before the
initial surgery. Therapeutic central neck lymph node dis-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
section should be included if the lymph nodes are clinically
involved. Thyroid lobectomy alone may be sufficient
The preoperative consent process should include explicit
treatment for low-risk papillary and follicular carcinomas.
discussion of the potential for temporary or permanent nerve
injury (and its clinical sequelae, including voice change,
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
swallowing disability, risk of aspiration, and tracheostomy)
(B) RAI ablation in lieu of completion thyroidectomy is
as well as hypoparathyroidism, bleeding, scarring, disease
not recommended routinely; however, it may be used to
recurrence, need for additional postoperative treatment, and
ablate the remnant lobe in selected cases.
need for thyroid hormone and surveillance thyroid function
tests. The conversation should be informed by the operating
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
surgeon’s own rates of complications. Results of the preop-
erative evaluation regarding extent of disease, risk stratifi-
Completion thyroidectomy may be necessary when the
cation, and integrity of the airway should include results from
diagnosis of malignancy is made following lobectomy
imaging, cytology, and physical examination (388–392).
for an indeterminate or nondiagnostic biopsy. In addition,
some patients with malignancy may require completion
[B12] Preoperative voice assessment
thyroidectomy to provide complete resection of multicentric
disease and to allow for efficient RAI therapy. However, since
intrathyroidal PTC or low-risk FTC can be managed with
&
RECOMMENDATION 40
either lobectomy or total thyroidectomy (see Recommenda-
All patients undergoing thyroid surgery should have preop-
tion 35B), a completion thyroidectomy is not always required.
erative voice assessment as part of their preoperative physical
The surgical risks of two-stage thyroidectomy (lobectomy
examination. This should include the patient’s description of
followed by completion thyroidectomy) are similar to those of
vocal changes, as well as the physician’s assessment of voice.
a near-total or total thyroidectomy (382–384). The marginal
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
utility of prophylactic lymph node dissection for cN0 disease
argues against its application in re-operations.
Ablation of the remaining lobe with RAI has been used
&
RECOMMENDATION 41
as an alternative to completion thyroidectomy (385,386).
Preoperative laryngeal exam should be performed in all
There are limited data regarding the long-term outcomes
patients with
of this approach. The data suggest similar clinical out-
(A) Preoperative voice abnormalities
comes with a slightly higher proportion of patients with
persistent detectable Tg. This approach may be helpful in
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
patients for whom completion thyroidectomy carries some
(B) History of cervical or upper chest surgery, which
increased risk and for whom a delay in the length of time
places the RLN or vagus nerve at risk
required to achieve destruction of the normal thyroid,
which follows RAI (as opposed to surgical resection), is
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
acceptable. In one unblinded, multicenter, randomized
(C) Known thyroid cancer with posterior extrathyroidal
controlled equivalence trial comparing dose activities in
extension or extensive central nodal metastases
achieving successful ablation of a remaining lobe in pa-
tients with T1b or T2 primary tumors, who had surgical
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
36
HAUGEN ET AL.
Voice alteration is an important complication of thyroid
should have a laryngeal exam even if the voice is normal if he
surgery affecting patients’ quality of life (with regard to
or she has a history of neck surgery that placed at risk either
voice, swallowing, and airway domains), and it can have
the RLN (such as past thyroid or parathyroid surgery) or the
medico-legal and cost implications (393–401).
vagus nerve (such as carotid endarterectomy, cervical eso-
Preoperative assessment provides a necessary baseline
phagectomy, and anterior approach to the cervical spine) or a
reference from which to establish perioperative expectations
history of prior external beam radiation to the neck. Correlation
(402). Also, preoperative voice assessment may lead one to
between vocal symptoms and actual vocal cord function is poor
identify preoperative vocal cord paralysis or paresis, which
given the potential for variation in paralytic cord position, de-
provides presumptive evidence of invasive thyroid malig-
gree of partial nerve function, and contralateral cord function/
nancy and is important in planning the extent of surgery and
compensation; therefore, vocal symptoms may be absent in
in perioperative airway management (403–405). Contralateral
patients with vocal cord paralysis. Vocal cord paralysis may be
nerve injury at surgery in such patients could cause bilateral
present in 1.5% to 30% of such postsurgical patients; it can be
cord paralysis with airway implications.
asymptomatic in up to one-third (403,416–422).
Preoperative voice assessment should include the patient’s
A laryngeal exam is recommended in patients with the
historical subjective response to questions regarding voice
preoperative diagnosis of thyroid cancer if there is evidence
abnormalities or changes, as well as the physician’s objective
for gross extrathyroidal extension of cancer posteriorly or
assessment of voice, and should be documented in the medical
extensive nodal involvement, even if the voice is normal. The
record (Table 9) (406). Voice and laryngeal function may be
laryngeal exam should be performed in the previously noted
further assessed through laryngoscopy, and the application of
high-risk settings, but it can be performed in other patients
validated quality of life and auditory perceptual assessment
based on the surgeon’s judgment.
voice instruments (402). It is important to appreciate that vocal
cord paralysis, especially when chronic, may not be associated
[B13] Intraoperative voice and parathyroid management
with significant vocal symptoms due to a variety of mecha-
nisms, including contralateral vocal cord compensation. Voice
&
RECOMMENDATION 42
assessment alone may not identify such individuals (402).
Incidence rates for preoperative vocal cord paresis or pa-
(A) Visual identification of the RLN during dissection is
ralysis for patients with benign thyroid disease at preoperative
required in all cases. Steps should also be taken to preserve
laryngoscopy range from 0% to 3.5% and up to 8% in patients
the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (EBSLN)
with thyroid cancer (407–411). Finding vocal cord paralysis
during dissection of the superior pole of the thyroid gland.
on preoperative examination strongly suggests the presence of
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
locally invasive disease. Approximately 10%–15% of thyroid
cancers present with extrathyroidal extension, with the most
(B) Intraoperative neural stimulation (with or without
common structures involved including strap muscle (53%),
monitoring) may be considered to facilitate nerve identi-
the RLN (47%), trachea (30%), esophagus (21%), and larynx
fication and confirm neural function.
(12%) (405,412–414).
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
Undiagnosed preoperative laryngeal nerve dysfunction
conveys greater risk during total thyroidectomy of postop-
&
RECOMMENDATION 43
erative bilateral nerve paralysis, respiratory distress, and need
The parathyroid glands and their blood supply should be
for tracheostomy. Also, preoperative identification of vocal
preserved during thyroid surgery.
cord paralysis is important because surgical algorithms in the
management of the invaded nerve incorporate nerve func-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
tional status (415).
A laryngeal exam should be performed if the voice is ab-
RLN injury rates are lower when the nerve is routinely
normal during preoperative evaluation. In addition, a patient
visualized in comparison with surgeries in which the nerve is
simply avoided (402,416,423). If the EBSLN can be visu-
alized and preserved, that is ideal. If the EBSLN cannot be
Table 9. Preoperative Factors Which May
visually identified, steps should be taken to avoid the nerve;
Be Associated with Laryngeal Nerve Dysfunction
this can be done by staying close to the thyroid capsule at the
superior pole and by skeletonizing the superior vascular
Factor
Symptoms/signs
pedicle. Intraoperative nerve monitoring can be used to fa-
cilitate this dissection (419). Studies with or without in-
History
Voice abnormality, dysphagia,
traoperative nerve monitoring demonstrate similar patient
airway symptoms, hemoptysis,
outcomes with regard to nerve injury rates (420), but studies
pain, rapid progression, prior
operation in neck or upper chest
likely have been underpowered to detect statistically sig-
Physical exam
Extensive, firm mass fixed to the
nificant differences (413,424). A recent systematic meta-
larynx or trachea
analysis of 20 randomized and nonrandomized prospective
Imaging
Mass extending to/beyond periphery
and retrospective studies suggested no statistically signifi-
of thyroid lobe posteriorly and/or
cant benefit of intraoperative neuromonitoring compared to
tracheoesophageal infiltration, or
visualization alone during thyroidectomy for the outcomes
bulky cervical adenopathy along
of overall, transient, or permanent RLN palsy when analyzed
the course of the RLN or vagus
per nerve at risk or per patient (425). However, second-
nerve
ary subgroup analyses of high-risk patients (including those
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
37
with thyroid cancer) suggested statistically significant het-
techniques, and open vocal cord medialization. Rates of vo-
erogeneity (variability) in treatment effect for overall and
cal cord paralysis after thyroid surgery can only be assessed
transient RLN injury, when analyzed per nerve at risk.
by laryngeal exam postoperatively.
Several studies show that intraoperative nerve monitoring is
Communication of intraoperative findings and postopera-
more commonly utilized by higher volume surgeons to fa-
tive care from the surgeon to other members of the patient’s
cilitate nerve management, and several studies show im-
thyroid cancer care team is critical to subsequent therapy and
proved rates of nerve paralysis with the use of neural
monitoring approaches. Important elements of communica-
monitoring in reoperative and complex thyroid surgery
tion include (i) surgical anatomic findings, including RLN
(401,426–430). Neural stimulation at the completion of lo-
and parathyroid status (including nerve monitoring loss of
bectomy can be used as a test to determine the safety of
signal information if monitoring is employed); (ii) surgical
contralateral surgery with avoidance of bilateral vocal cord
disease findings, including evidence for extrathyroidal
paralysis, and it has been associated with a reduction of bi-
spread, completeness of tumor resection, presence and dis-
lateral paralysis when loss of signal occurs on the first side
tribution of nodal disease; and (iii) postoperative status, in-
(428,431–433). Given the complexity of monitoring sys-
cluding voice/laryngeal exam, laboratory data regarding
tems, training and observation of existing monitoring stan-
calcium/parathyroid hormone levels and need for calcium
dards are important to provide optimal benefit (424,434).
and/or vitamin D supplementation, and the surgical pathol-
Typically, parathyroid gland preservation is optimized by
ogy report (440). The surgeon should remain engaged in the
gland identification via meticulous dissection (435,436). If
patient’s pursuant care to facilitate appropriate communica-
the parathyroid(s) cannot be located, the surgeon should at-
tion and may remain engaged subsequent to endocrinologic
tempt to dissect on the thyroid capsule and ligate the inferior
consultation depending on regional practice patterns.
thyroid artery very close to the thyroid, since the majority of
parathyroid glands receive their blood supply from this ves-
[B15] What are the basic principles of histopathologic
sel. There are exceptions to this rule; for example, superior
evaluation of thyroidectomy samples?
glands in particular may receive blood supply from the su-
perior thyroid artery. If the parathyroid glands are inadver-
&
RECOMMENDATION 46
tently or unavoidably removed (e.g., they are intrathyroidal,
(A) In addition to the basic tumor features required for
or require removal during a central lymph node dissection) or
AJCC/UICC thyroid cancer staging including status of
devascularized, confirmation of cancer-free parathyroid tis-
resection margins, pathology reports should contain ad-
sue should be performed, and then the glands can be auto-
ditional information helpful for risk assessment, such as
transplanted into the strap or sternocleidomastoid muscles. It
the presence of vascular invasion and the number of in-
is important to inspect the thyroidectomy and/or central
vaded vessels, number of lymph nodes examined and in-
lymphadenectomy specimen when removed and before
volved with tumor, size of the largest metastatic focus to
sending it to pathology to look for parathyroid glands that can
the lymph node, and presence or absence of extranodal
be rescued.
extension of the metastatic tumor.
[B14] Postoperative care
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
(B) Histopathologic variants of thyroid carcinoma associated
&
RECOMMENDATION 44
with more unfavorable outcomes (e.g., tall cell, columnar
Patients should have their voice assessed in the postoper-
cell, and hobnail variants of PTC; widely invasive FTC;
ative period. Formal laryngeal exam should be performed
poorly differentiated carcinoma) or more favorable out-
if the voice is abnormal
comes (e.g., encapsulated follicular variant of PTC without
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
invasion, minimally invasive FTC) should be identified
during histopathologic examination and reported.
&
RECOMMENDATION 45
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
Important intraoperative findings and details of postoper-
ative care should be communicated by the surgeon to
(C) Histopathologic variants associated with familial
the patient and other physicians who are important in the
syndromes (cribriform-morular variant of papillary carci-
patient’s postoperative care.
noma often associated with FAP, follicular or papillary
carcinoma associated with PTEN-hamartoma tumor syn-
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
drome) should be identified during histopathologic ex-
amination and reported.
Voice assessment should occur after surgery and should be
based on the patient’s subjective report and physician’s ob-
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
jective assessment of voice in the office (409). Typically this
assessment can be performed at 2 weeks to 2 months after
Pathologic examination of thyroid samples establishes
surgery. Early detection of vocal cord motion abnormalities
the diagnosis and provides important information for risk
after thyroidectomy is important for facilitating prompt in-
stratification of cancer and postsurgical patient manage-
tervention (typically through early injection vocal cord
ment. Histopathologically, papillary carcinoma is a well-
medialization), which is associated with better long-term
differentiated malignant tumor of thyroid follicular cells that
outcome, including a lower rate of formal open thyroplasty
demonstrates characteristic microscopic nuclear features.
repair (437–439). Many options exist for the management of
Although a papillary growth pattern is frequently seen, it is
RLN paralysis, including voice therapy, vocal cord injection
not required for the diagnosis. Follicular carcinoma is a
38
HAUGEN ET AL.
well-differentiated malignant tumor of thyroid follicular cells
thrombus attached to the intravascular tumor cells (453). The
that shows transcapsular and/or vascular invasion and lacks the
invaded blood vessels should not be located within the tumor
diagnostic nuclear features of papillary carcinoma. Oncocytic
nodule parenchyma, but rather in the tumor capsule or outside
(Hu¨rthle cell) follicular carcinoma shows the follicular growth
of it. Invasion of multiple (four or more) blood vessels ap-
pattern but is composed of cells with abundant granular eosin-
pears to entail poorer outcomes, particularly in follicular
ophilic cytoplasm, which has this appearance because of accu-
carcinomas (454–456). Therefore, the number of invaded
mulation of innumerable mitochondria. This tumor is currently
blood vessels (less than four or more) should be stated in the
designated by the World Health Organization as a histopatho-
pathology report.
logic variant of follicular carcinoma (441). However, oncocytic
More than 10 microscopic variants of papillary carcinoma
follicular carcinoma tumors have some differences in biological
have been documented (457). Some of them are associated
behavior as compared to the conventional type follicular carci-
with more aggressive or conversely more indolent tumor
noma, such as the ability to metastasize to lymph nodes and a
behavior and can contribute to risk stratification. The vari-
possibly higher rate of recurrence and tumor-related mortality
ants with more unfavorable outcomes are the tall cell, co-
(269,442,443). Moreover, a growing body of genetic evidence
lumnar cell, and hobnail variants. The tall cell variant is
suggests that oncocytic tumors develop via unique molecular
characterized by predominance (>50%) of tall columnar tu-
mechanisms and therefore represent a distinct type of well-
mor cells whose height is at least three times their width.
differentiated thyroid cancer (444).
These tumors present at an older age and more advanced
Traditionally, follicular carcinomas have been sub-
stage than classic papillary carcinoma (458–461) and dem-
divided into minimally invasive (encapsulated) and widely
onstrate a higher recurrence rate and decreased disease-
invasive. In this classification scheme, minimally invasive
specific survival (458–460,462,463). Some studies found a
carcinomas are fully encapsulated tumors with microscop-
higher rate of lymph node metastasis and poorer survival in
ically identifiable foci of capsular or vascular invasion, whereas
patients with tall cell variant as compared to classic papillary
widely invasive carcinomas are tumors with extensive vascular
carcinoma even in tumors without extrathyroidal extension,
and/or extrathyroidal, invasion. More recent approaches con-
and this was independent of patient age and tumor size and
sider encapsulated tumors with only microscopic capsular in-
stage (464,465). The BRAFV600E mutation is found in *80%
vasion as minimally invasive, whereas angioinvasive tumors are
of these tumors (156,466).
placed into a separate category (445–447). Such an approach is
The columnar cell variant of papillary carcinoma is char-
preferable because it distinguishes encapsulated tumors with
acterized by predominance of columnar cells with pro-
capsular invasion and no vascular invasion, which are highly
nounced nuclear stratification (467,468). These tumors have
indolent tumors with a mortality <5%, from angioinvasive fol-
a higher risk of distant metastases and tumor-related mor-
licular carcinomas, which have a mortality ranging from 5% to
tality, the latter seen mostly in patients with an advanced
30%, depending on the number of invaded blood vessels (448).
disease stage at presentation (467–470). The BRAFV600E
In addition to establishing a diagnosis for each nodule in a
mutation is found in one-third of these tumors (467).
thyroidectomy or lobectomy specimen, the pathology report
Papillary carcinoma with prominent hobnail features is a
must provide characteristics required for AJCC/UICC TNM
rare, recently described variant characterized by the pre-
staging, such as tumor size and presence of extrathyroidal
dominance of cells with a hobnail appearance with apically
extension and lymph node metastasis. Extrathyroidal exten-
placed nuclei and bulging of the apical cell surface (471,472).
sion is defined as tumor extension into the adjacent tissues. It
The BRAFV600E mutation is frequently found in these tumors
is subdivided into minimal, which is invasion into immediate
(471,473). This variant of papillary carcinoma appears to be
perithyroidal soft tissues or sternothyroid muscle typically
associated with frequent distant metastases (typically to lung)
detected only microscopically (T3 tumors), and extensive,
and increased risk of tumor-related death (471).
which is tumor invasion into subcutaneous soft tissues, lar-
Other variants of papillary carcinoma, such as the solid
ynx, trachea, esophagus, or RLN (T4a tumors). The status of
variant and diffuse sclerosing variant, may be associated with
the resection (inked) margins should be reported as ‘‘in-
a less favorable outcome, although the data remain conflict-
volved’’ or ‘‘uninvolved’’ with tumor, since positive margins
ing. The solid variant tumors appear to be more frequently
are generally associated with intermediate or high risk for
associated with distant metastases that are present in about
recurrence.
15% of cases, and with a slightly higher mortality rate, which
The size of the metastatic focus in a lymph node (335) and
was 10%–12% in two studies with 10 and 19 years mean
tumor extension beyond the capsule of a lymph node
follow-up (474,475). However, among children and adoles-
(338,449,450) affect cancer risk. Therefore, the pathology
cents with post-Chernobyl papillary carcinomas, which fre-
report should indicate the size of the largest metastatic focus
quently were of the solid variant, the mortality was very low
to the lymph node and the presence or absence of extranodal
(<1%) during the first 10 years of follow-up (476,477). Im-
tumor extension, as well as the number of examined and
portantly, the solid variant of papillary carcinoma should be
involved lymph nodes.
distinguished from poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma,
Additionally, the presence of vascular (blood vessel) in-
with which it shares the insular, solid, and trabecular growth
vasion is an unfavorable prognostic factor (451–453) and
patterns. The distinction is based primarily on the preserva-
should be evaluated and reported. Vascular invasion is di-
tion of nuclear features and lack of necrosis and high mitotic
agnosed as direct tumor extension into the blood vessel lu-
activity in the solid variant, as outlined by the Turin diag-
men or a tumor aggregate present within the vessel lumen,
nostic criteria for poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma
typically attached to the wall and covered by a layer of en-
(478). It is important to make the distinction because poorly
dothelial cells. More rigid criteria for vascular invasion
differentiated thyroid carcinoma has a much poorer progno-
proposed by some authors also require the presence of a fibrin
sis, with the 5-year survival of 72% and 10-year survival of
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
39
46% in a series of 152 patients diagnosed using the Turin
invasion or invasion of the tumor capsule. Therefore, path-
criteria (479).
ologic evaluation of these tumors should include microscopic
The prognostic implication of the diffuse sclerosing variant
examination of the entire tumor capsule to rule out invasion,
of papillary cancer remains controversial. This variant is
as well as careful evaluation of the tumor to rule out the
characterized by diffuse involvement of the thyroid gland and a
presence of poorly differentiated carcinoma areas or other
higher rate of local and distant metastases at presentation, and it
unfavorable diagnostic features such as tumor necrosis or
has lower disease-free survival than classic papillary carcinoma
high (‡3 per 10 high-power fields) mitotic activity (493). In
(480–482). The frequency of distant metastases, predominantly
the absence of these features, a completely excised nonin-
affecting the lung, varies between reported series and is
vasive encapsulated follicular variant of papillary carcinoma
10%–15% based on almost 100 published cases summa-
is expected to have a very low risk of recurrence or extra-
rized by Lam and Lo in 2006 (483) and more recent reports.
thyroidal spread, even in patients treated by lobectomy.
Nevertheless, the overall mortality appears to be low, with a
Similarly, excellent clinical outcomes are seen in FTCs
disease-specific survival of approximately 93% at 10 years of
that manifest only capsular invasion without vascular inva-
follow-up. The diffuse sclerosing variant tends to be found in
sion (494–496). When vascular invasion is present, the tumor
younger patients in whom response to treatment is high.
should no longer be designated as minimally invasive.
The encapsulated follicular variant of papillary carcinoma
However, some studies (456,494,497–500), although not all
is, in contrast, associated with a low risk of recurrence, par-
(496,501), suggest that only those follicular carcinomas that
ticularly in the absence of capsular or vascular invasion. This
have a greater extent of vascular invasion (more than four
variant is characterized by a follicular growth pattern with no
foci of vascular invasion, or extracapsular vascular invasion)
papillae formation and total tumor encapsulation, and the
are associated with poorer outcomes.
diagnosis rests on the finding of characteristic nuclear fea-
Some histopathologic variants of thyroid carcinomas are
tures of papillary carcinoma. Although the encapsulated
important to recognize because of their association with fa-
follicular variant of PTC shares the follicular growth pattern
milial tumor syndromes (41,502). The cribriform-morular
with the infiltrative, nonencapsulated follicular variant of
variant of papillary carcinoma is frequently seen in patients
PTC, these tumors differ in their molecular profiles and
with FAP due to a germline mutation in the adenomatous
biological properties. The encapsulated follicular variant
polyposis coli (APC) gene (503,504). It is characterized by a
tumors frequently have RAS mutations, whereas nonencap-
prominent cribriform architecture and formation of whorls or
sulated follicular variants frequently harbor BRAFV600E mu-
morules composed of spindle cells. The presence of aberrant
tations, similar to classic papillary carcinomas (484,485).
b-catenin immunoreactivity provides a strong evidence for
Most of the encapsulated follicular variant papillary carci-
this tumor variant (505–507). Approximately 40% of patients
nomas show no invasive growth, whereas in about one-third
with this variant of papillary carcinoma are found to have
of cases tumor capsule invasion, vascular invasion, or both
FAP, whereas the rest have no evidence of the inherited
are found (486,487). Whereas in the past the encapsulated
disease (505,508). Although no microscopic tumor features
follicular variant was relatively rare, at the present time half
can distinguish between familial and sporadic disease, tumor
to two-thirds of all follicular variant papillary carcinomas
multifocality is more common in the setting of the familial
belong to this subtype (488). The behavior of these tumors is
disease (505,508). Since many patients with the cribriform-
usually quite indolent. A summary of six studies that reported
morular variant have FAP, and thyroid cancer can precede
107 cases of encapsulated follicular variant revealed 25%
clinically detectable colonic abnormalities in *40% of pa-
with lymph node metastases and 1% with distant metastases
tients (508), this diagnosis should raise the possibility of the
(489). Among these 107 patients, one died of disease and two
familial disease and prompt consideration for colonic ex-
were alive with disease, whereas the rest (97%) of the patients
amination and genetic counseling.
were alive and well with various follow-up periods. In a study
Follicular carcinoma may develop as a manifestation of the
of 61 cases of encapsulated follicular variant, lymph node
PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome, which is caused by a
metastases were observed in 5%, and there was no distant
germline mutation in the PTEN gene (509–511). The histo-
metastasis (486). With median follow-up of 11 years, one
pathologic appearance of thyroid glands in these patients is
patient developed tumor recurrence, and this tumor had in-
very characteristic and should allow pathologists to suspect
vasion. No adverse events were found in any of the encap-
this syndrome (510,511). The glands typically have numer-
sulated and noninvasive tumors, including 31 patients treated
ous sharply delineated, frequently encapsulated thyroid
with lobectomy only. Similarly, no evidence of recurrence
nodules that microscopically are well-delineated and cellular
was found in 61 out of 62 encapsulated or well-circumscribed
and have variable growth patterns (510–513). Individuals
follicular variant of PTC in another series of patients with a
affected by this syndrome also have a high risk for benign and
median follow-up of 9.2 years, and the only case that de-
malignant tumors of the breast and endometrium, colon ha-
veloped recurrence had a positive resection margin after
martomas, and others, and in light of the characteristic ap-
initial surgery (490). In another study of a cohort of thyroid
pearance of the thyroid gland in these patients, genetic
tumors followed on average for 12 years, none of 66 patients
counseling should be recommended.
with encapsulated follicular variant of papillary carcinoma
Well-differentiated papillary and follicular cancers should
died of disease (487). Despite a low probability, some pa-
be histologically distinguished from poorly differentiated
tients with encapsulated follicular variants may present with
carcinoma. Poorly differentiated carcinoma is an aggressive
distant metastases, particularly to the bones, or develop me-
thyroid tumor characterized by a partial loss of the features
tastasis on follow-up (491,492). Tumors prone to metastatic
of thyroid differentiation that occupies morphologically
behavior often have a thick capsule and significant in-
and behaviorally an intermediate position between well-
tratumoral fibrosis, and virtually all of them reveal vascular
differentiated papillary and follicular carcinomas and fully
40
HAUGEN ET AL.
dedifferentiated anaplastic carcinoma. Another term used in
care providers are outlined in a recent publication of the Sur-
the past for this tumor was ‘‘insular carcinoma.’’ Diagnostic
gical Affairs Committee of the ATA (440).
criteria for poorly differentiated carcinoma are based on the
It is important to emphasize that the identification of a
consensus Turin proposal and include the following three
clinico-pathologic or molecular predictor of recurrence or
features: (i) solid/trabecular/insular microscopic growth
mortality does not necessarily imply that more aggressive
pattern, (ii) lack of well-developed nuclear features of pap-
therapies (such as more extensive surgery, RAI therapy,
illary carcinoma, and (iii) convoluted nuclei (evidence for
aggressive thyroid hormone therapy with TSH suppres-
partial loss of differentiation in papillary cancer), tumor ne-
sion, targeted therapies) will have a significant impact on
crosis, or three or more mitoses per 10 high-power fields
clinical outcomes. Similarly, the absence of a risk factor does
(514). Poorly differentiated carcinomas have significantly
not mean that more aggressive therapies are not indicated.
worse outcome as compared to well-differentiated PTC
Intervention studies are required to determine which at-risk-
and FTC, with a 10-year survival of *50% (514–516). Pa-
patients may benefit from additional therapies or a more
tient age over 45 years, larger tumor size, presence of ne-
conservative management approach. Until appropriate treat-
crosis, and high mitotic activity are additional factors that
ment intervention studies are completed, the risk stratification
may influence a more unfavorable outcome in patients with
information associated with a clinico-pathologic risk factor or
poorly differentiated thyroid cancer (514,517). It is not clear
with a molecular profiling can be used as a prognostic factor to
if the proportion of poorly differentiated carcinoma areas
guide follow-up management decisions such as the type and
within the cancer nodule directly correlates with prognosis.
frequency of imaging and biochemical testing.
Several studies have reported similarly decreased survival in
patients with poorly differentiated carcinoma constituting
[B18] AJCC/UICC TNM staging
more than 50% of the tumor and in those in whom it was
Over the years, multiple staging systems have been de-
observed as a minor component (518,519). Tumors with in-
veloped to predict the risk of mortality in patients with DTC
sular, solid, or trabecular architecture, but lacking other di-
(522). Each of the systems uses some combination of age at
agnostic features of poorly differentiated carcinoma, do not
diagnosis, size of the primary tumor, specific tumor histol-
demonstrate such an aggressive behavior and therefore should
ogy, and extrathyroidal spread of the tumor (direct extension
not be considered as poorly differentiated. On the other hand,
of the tumor outside the thyroid gland, loco-regional metas-
some studies suggest that the presence of a high mitotic rate
tases, and/or distant metastases) to stratify patients into one of
(‡5 mitoses/10 high-power fields or Ki-67 labeling index
several categories with differing risks of death from thyroid
‡4%) or tumor necrosis predicts a less favorable outcome
cancer. Recently, a nomogram was developed and validated
irrespective of the presence of the solid/trabecular/insular
using the SEER data base, which provides a mathematical
growth pattern (520,521).
approach to integrating these important clinical predictive
features into a specific mortality risk estimate for an indi-
[B16] What is the role of postoperative staging
vidual patient (523). Using an approach similar to the MACIS
systems and risk stratification in the management
system from the Mayo Clinic (270), a quantitative approach
of DTC?
based on histology, age, lymph node metastases, tumor size,
and extrathyroidal extension utilizing TNM staging has re-
[B17] Postoperative staging
cently been proposed and validated (524,525)
While none of the staging systems has been shown to be
&
RECOMMENDATION 47
clearly superior to the other systems, several studies have
AJCC/UICC staging is recommended for all patients with
demonstrated that the AJCC/UICC TNM system (Table 10)
DTC, based on its utility in predicting disease mortality,
and the MACIS system consistently provide the highest
and its requirement for cancer registries.
proportion of variance explained (PVE, a statistical measure
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
of how well a staging system can predict the outcome of
interest) when applied to a broad range of patient cohorts
Postoperative staging for thyroid cancer, as for other cancer
(277,501,526–530), and they have been validated in retro-
types, is used (i) to provide prognostic information, which is of
spective studies as well as prospectively in clinical practice.
value when considering disease surveillance and therapeutic
Unfortunately, none of the staging systems designed to
strategies, and (ii) to enable risk-stratified description of pa-
predict mortality from thyroid cancer can account for more
tients for communication among health care professionals,
than a small proportion (5%–30%, corresponding to PVE
tracking by cancer registries, and research purposes.
values of 0.05–0.30) of the uncertainty associated with
Accurate initial staging requires a detailed understanding
eventual death from thyroid cancer (277,501,526–530). This
of all pertinent risk stratification data, whether they were ob-
relative inability to accurately predict the risk of death from
tained as part of preoperative testing, during the operation(s),
thyroid cancer for an individual patient may be related to
or as part of postoperative follow-up. It is also important to
the failure of current staging systems to adequately integrate
emphasize that in many cases the written pathology report of
the risk associated with other potentially important clinico-
the surgical specimen does not convey critical risk factors such
pathologic features such as the specific histology (well-
as preoperative vocal cord paralysis, extent of gross extra-
differentiated thyroid cancer versus poorly differentiated
thyroidal invasion, completeness of resection, or remaining
thyroid cancer), molecular profile, size and location of distant
gross residual disease. Without these critical pieces of infor-
metastases (pulmonary metastases versus bone metastases
mation, it is likely that initial risk stratification will be inac-
versus brain metastases), functional status of the metastases
curate and potentially misleading. Details and suggestions for
(RAI avid versus 18FDG-PET avid), and effectiveness of
effectively communicating specific risk factors between health
initial therapy (completeness of resection, effectiveness of
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
41
Table 10. AJCC 7th Edition/TNM Classification
RAI, external beam radiation therapy or other systemic
System for Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma
therapies). Furthermore, recent studies have questioned the
use of the age of 45 years as a cutoff to upstage patients using
Definition
the AJCC/UICC TNM system (340,531–533).
Even though the various staging systems designed to predict
T0
No evidence of primary tumor
mortality from thyroid cancer were developed and validated
T1a
Tumor £1 cm, without extrathyroidal extension
using cohorts that were either exclusively or predominantly
T1b
Tumor >1 cm but £2 cm in greatest dimension,
PTC patients, several small studies have demonstrated that
without extrathyroidal extension
MACIS and AJCC/UICC TNM staging systems were also
T2
Tumor >2 cm but £4 cm in greatest dimension,
predictive in patients with FTC (501,534,535).
without extrathyroidal extension.
Currently, none of the mortality risk systems incorporate
T3
Tumor >4 cm in greatest dimension limited to
molecular testing results. This may need to be re-evaluated as
the thyroid
studies emerge using molecular testing including BRAFV600E,
or
TERT, and TP53 or combinations of markers. For example, in
Any size tumor with minimal extrathyroidal
one study that analyzed more than 400 DTCs, the presence of
extension (e.g., extension into sternothyroid
a TERT mutation was found to be an independent predictor of
muscle or perithyroidal soft tissues).
mortality (hazard ratio [HR] 10.35 [95% CI 2.01–53.24]) for
T4a
Tumor of any size extending beyond the thyroid
all differentiated cancers and for papillary carcinomas (154).
capsule to invade subcutaneous soft tissues,
These potential prognostic markers are promising, but re-
larynx, trachea, esophagus, or recurrent
quire further study.
laryngeal nerve.
T4b
Tumor of any size invading prevertebral fascia
[B19] What initial stratification system should be
or encasing carotid artery or mediastinal vessels
used to estimate the risk of persistent/recurrent
N0
No metastatic nodes
disease?
N1a
Metastases to level VI (pretracheal, paratracheal,
&
and prelaryngeal/Delphian lymph nodes).
RECOMMENDATION 48
N1b
Metastases to unilateral, bilateral, or contralateral
(A) The 2009 ATA Initial Risk Stratification System is
cervical (levels I, II III, IV, or V) or
recommended for DTC patients treated with thyroidec-
retropharyngeal or superior mediastinal
tomy, based on its utility in predicting risk of disease re-
lymph nodes (level VII)
currence and/or persistence.
M0
No distant metastases
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
M1
Distant metastases
(B) Additional prognostic variables (such as the extent of
Patient age <45 years old at diagnosis
lymph node involvement, mutational status, and/or the
degree of vascular invasion in FTC), not included in the
I
Any T
Any N
M0
2009 ATA Initial Risk Stratification system may be used to
II
Any T
Any N
M1
further refine risk stratification for DTC as described in the
following text (and in Fig. 4) in the Modified Initial Risk
Patient age ‡45 years old at diagnosis
Stratification system. However, the incremental benefit of
adding these specific prognostic variables to the 2009 In-
I
T1a
N0
M0
itial Risk Stratification system has not been established.
T1b
N0
M0
II
T2
N0
M0
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
III
T1a
N1a
M0
(C) While not routinely recommended for initial postop-
T1b
N1a
M0
erative risk stratification in DTC, the mutational status of
T2
N1a
M0
BRAF, and potentially other mutations such as TERT, have
T3
N0
M0
the potential to refine risk estimates when interpreted in the
T3
N1a
M0
context of other clinico-pathologic risk factors.
IVa
T1a
N1b
M0
T1b
N1b
M0
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
T2
N1b
M0
T3
N1b
M0
Because the AJCC/TNM risk of mortality staging system
T4a
N0
M0
does not adequately predict the risk of recurrence in DTC
T4a
N1a
M0
(536–539), the 2009 version of the ATA thyroid cancer
T4a
N1b
M0
guidelines proposed a three-tiered clinico-pathologic risk
IVb
T4b
Any N
M0
stratification system that classified patients as having low,
IVc
Any T
Any N
M1
intermediate, or high risk of recurrence (25). Low-risk pa-
tients were defined as having intrathyroidal DTC with no
Used with the permission of the American Joint Committee on
evidence of extrathyroidal extension, vascular invasion, or
Cancer (AJCC), Chicago, Illinois. The original source for this
metastases. Intermediate-risk patients demonstrated either
material is the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, Seventh Edition
microscopic extrathyroidal extension, cervical lymph node
(1077) published by Springer Science and Business Media LLC
(http://www.springer.com).
metastases, RAI-avid disease in the neck outside the thyroid
42
HAUGEN ET AL.
FIG. 4.
Risk of structural disease recurrence in patients without structurally identifiable disease after initial therapy. The
risk of structural disease recurrence associated with selected clinico-pathological features are shown as a continuum of risk
with percentages (ranges, approximate values) presented to reflect our best estimates based on the published literature
reviewed in the text. In the left hand column, the three-tiered risk system proposed as the Modified Initial Risk Stratification
System is also presented to demonstrate how the continuum of risk estimates informed our modifications of the 2009 ATA
Initial Risk System (see Recommendation 48). *While analysis of BRAF and/or TERT status is not routinely recommended
for initial risk stratification, we have included these findings to assist clinicians in proper risk stratification in cases where
this information is available. FTC, follicular thyroid cancer; FV, follicular variant; LN, lymph node; PTMC, papillary
thyroid microcarcinoma; PTC, papillary thyroid cancer.
bed, vascular invasion, or aggressive tumor histology. High-
defined as a stimulated Tg <1 ng/mL with no other radio-
risk patients had gross extrathyroidal extension, incomplete
logical or clinical evidence of disease. Prospectively col-
tumor resection, distant metastases, or inappropriate post-
lected validation data for the ATA initial risk stratification
operative serum Tg values (Table 11).
system are needed.
The 2009 ATA risk stratification system was somewhat
Three additional studies, in which the ATA risk classifi-
different than staging systems proposed by a European
cation system was retrospectively evaluated, have also sug-
Consensus conference (540) and the Latin American Thyroid
gested that the ATA risk of recurrence model may be applied
Society (LATS) (541) which classify patients as either being
in low- and intermediate-risk patients in the absence of RAI
at very low risk (unifocal, intrathyroidal T1aN0M0), low risk
remnant ablation (328,544,545). Over a median follow-up
(T1b N0M0, T2N0M0, or multifocal T1N0M0,), or high risk
period that ranged from 5 to 10 years, structural disease re-
(any T3 or T4, any N1, or any M1). The European and LATS
currence was identified in less than 1%–2% of ATA low-risk
very low risk and low risk categories would be classified as
patients and 8% of ATA intermediate-risk patients who un-
ATA low risk, while the ETA high risk category would be
derwent thyroid surgery without RAI ablation as the initial
subdivided between ATA intermediate risk (minor extra-
therapy (328,544,545).
thyroidal extension, N1 disease) and ATA high risk (gross
The type of persistent disease also varies according to
extrathyroidal extension, M1, incomplete tumor resection).
ATA initial risk stratification, with 70%–80% of the persis-
Subsequent studies have retrospectively validated the 2009
tent disease in ATA low-risk patients manifested by abnor-
ATA risk of recurrence staging system through analysis of
mal serum Tg levels (suppressed or stimulated Tg >1 ng/mL)
independent datasets originating from three respective con-
without structurally identifiable disease, while only 29%–
tinents (Table 12). These studies have reported the estimates
51% of the ATA intermediate-risk patients and 19%–21% of
of patients who subsequently had no evidence of disease
ATA high-risk patients are classified as having persistent
(NED) in each ATA Risk Category after total thyroidectomy
disease only on the basis of biochemical abnormalities
and RAI remnant ablation: (a) low risk, 78%–91% NED, (b)
(538,539,543). With increasing ATA risk level, the RR of
intermediate risk, 52%–64% NED, and (c) high risk, 31%–
having structural persistent/recurrent disease increases. Thus,
32% NED (538,539,542,543). In these datasets, NED was
the ATA low-risk patients appear to have the highest RR of
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
43
Table 11. ATA 2009 Risk Stratification System with Proposed Modifications
ATA low risk
Papillary thyroid cancer (with all of the following):
No local or distant metastases;
All macroscopic tumor has been resected
No tumor invasion of loco-regional tissues or structures
The tumor does not have aggressive histology (e.g., tall cell, hobnail variant,
columnar cell carcinoma)
If 131I is given, there are no RAI-avid metastatic foci outside the thyroid bed on
the first posttreatment whole-body RAI scan
No vascular invasion
Clinical N0 or £5 pathologic N1 micrometastases (<0.2 cm in largest dimension)a
Intrathyroidal, encapsulated follicular variant of papillary thyroid cancera
Intrathyroidal, well differentiated follicular thyroid cancer with capsular invasion and
no or minimal (<4 foci) vascular invasiona
Intrathyroidal, papillary microcarcinoma, unifocal or multifocal, including BRAFV600E
mutated (if known)a
ATA intermediate
Microscopic invasion of tumor into the perithyroidal soft tissues
risk
RAI-avid metastatic foci in the neck on the first posttreatment whole-body RAI scan
Aggressive histology (e.g., tall cell, hobnail variant, columnar cell carcinoma)
Papillary thyroid cancer with vascular invasion
Clinical N1 or >5 pathologic N1 with all involved lymph nodes <3 cm in largest dimensiona
Multifocal papillary microcarcinoma with ETE and BRAFV600E mutated (if known)a
ATA high risk
Macroscopic invasion of tumor into the perithyroidal soft tissues (gross ETE)
Incomplete tumor resection
Distant metastases
Postoperative serum thyroglobulin suggestive of distant metastases
Pathologic N1 with any metastatic lymph node ‡3 cm in largest dimensiona
Follicular thyroid cancer with extensive vascular invasion (> 4 foci of vascular invasion)a
aProposed modifications, not present in the original 2009 initial risk stratification system. See sections [B19]–[B23] and Recommendation
48B.
isolated thyroglobulinemia, which may be of less clinical
[B20] Potential impact of specific clinico-pathologic fea-
significance than structural disease persistence or recurrence.
tures on the risk estimates in PTC
Similar to what was seen with the staging systems designed
As originally conceived, the ATA initial risk stratification
to predict risk of mortality from thyroid cancer (see section
system was a three-tiered system in which clinico-pathologic
[B18] above), the PVE by the ATA risk of recurrence system
features available at the time of initial treatment were used to
was suboptimal, ranging from 19% to 34% (538,542). More
classify DTC patients as having either low, intermediate, or
recently, a novel mathematical clinico-pathologic staging
high risk of either recurrence or persistent disease. However,
system from the University of Yonsei yielded similar results
as with any categorical staging system, the risk of recurrence
with a PVE of 11.9% in predicting disease recurrence (546).
within the individual risk categories (low, intermediate, and
Table 12. American Thyroid Association Risk Stratification System: Clinical Outcomes Following Total
Thyroidectomy and Radioiodine Remnant Ablation or Adjuvant Therapy
Biochemical
Structural
ATA risk
Study
NED, %
incomplete, %b
incomplete, %c
Low
Tuttle et al. (538)
86
11
3
Castagna et al. (542)
91
NDa
NDa
Vaisman et al. (539)
88
10
2
Pitoia et al. (543)
78
15
7
Intermediatea
Tuttle et al. (538)
57
22
21
Vaisman et al. (539)
63
16
21
Pitoia et al. (543)
52
14
34
High
Tuttle et al. (538)
14
14
72
Vaisman et al. (539)
16
12
72
Pitoia et al. (543)
31
13
56
aBecause the ATA intermediate- and high-risk groups were merged into a single ‘‘high-risk’’ group in the series by Castagna et al. (542),
risk of persistent/recurrent disease for these subgroups is not presented.
bProportion of patients with a biochemical incomplete response. Definition: suppressed Tg >1 ng/mL, TSH-stimulated Tg >10 ng/mL, or
rising anti-Tg antibody levels in the absence of structural disease.
cProportion of patients with persistent/recurrent disease that is structural. Definition: structural disease that is either biopsy-proven or
highly suspicious for disease with or without abnormal serum Tg.
ND, not determined.
44
HAUGEN ET AL.
high) can vary depending on the specific clinical features
metastasis despite not having lymphovascular invasion or
of individual patients (Fig. 4). In addition, the three-tiered
lymph node metastases identified at the time of diagnosis.
system did not specifically address the risk of recurrence
Therefore, intrathyroidal FVPTC is best classified as a low-
associated with specific DTC histologies, multifocality, ge-
risk tumor that is unlikely to recur or metastasize.
notype, extent of vascular invasion, or extent of metastatic
Well-differentiated FTCs demonstrating only capsular in-
lymph node involvement.
vasion (without vascular invasion) usually have an excellent
For example, while intrathyroidal PTCs of all sizes are
prognosis with recurrence rates of 0%–7% and can be classi-
included in the ATA low-risk category, the risk of structural
fied as low-risk tumors (494–496). Encapsulated, minimally
disease recurrence can vary from 1%–2% in unifocal papil-
invasive FTC with only minor vascular invasion (small number
lary microcarcinomas, to 4%–6% in multifocal papil-
of foci confined to intracapsular vessels) also appears to have
lary microcarcinomas (141,147), to 5%–6% in 2–4 cm
a low recurrence rate of approximately 0%–5% (456,500).
intrathyroidal PTC (547), and 8%–10% in intrathyroidal PTC
Furthermore, some studies (456,494,497–500), but not all
>4 cm (547). Similarly, while all DTC patients with loco-
(496,501), suggest a greater extent of vascular invasion (more
regional lymph node metastases were classified as having
than four foci of vascular invasion, or extracapsular vascular
intermediate risk in the 2009 ATA risk stratification system,
invasion) is associated with poorer outcomes even in en-
the risk of structural disease recurrence can vary from 4% in
capsulated FTCs. However, FTC is considered ATA high risk
patients with fewer than five metastatic lymph nodes, to 5% if
if extensive vascular invasion is present because the risk of
all involved lymph nodes are <0.2 cm, to 19% if more than
the development of newly identified distant metastases is as
five lymph nodes are involved, to 21% if more than 10 lymph
high as 30%–55% (455,494,497,500).
nodes are involved, to 22% if macroscopic lymph node me-
In PTC, most (451–453,558–561), but not all (562) studies
tastases are clinically evident (clinical N1 disease), and 27%–
demonstrate that vascular invasion is associated with worse
32% if any metastatic lymph node is >3 cm (335,548). These
clinical outcomes. Recurrence rates were significantly higher
risk estimates apply to both N1a and N1b disease because
if vascular invasion was present in the studies by Gardner et al.
there are insufficient data to determine risk based on location
(16%–20% with vascular invasion, 3%–6% without), Nishida
within the neck independent of size, number of involved
et al. (28% with vascular invasion, 15% without), and Falvo
nodes, and extranodal extension. It is very likely that these
et al. (30% with vascular invasion, 5% without), but not in the
risk estimates could vary depending on the types and extent
studies by Furlan et al. (562) or Akslen et al. (559). Vascular
of nodal dissections done in individual patients. As defined
invasion in PTC was also associated with higher rates of dis-
by the ATA surgical affairs committee task force on thyroid
tant metastases (453,561) and disease-specific mortality
cancer nodal surgery, £5 pN1 micrometastases (<0.2 cm in
(559,560).
largest dimension) are classified as lower risk N1 disease
(<5% risk of recurrence) (335). Clinical N1 disease, more
[B21] Potential impact of BRAFV600E and other mutations
than five metastatic lymph nodes, or any metastatic lymph
on risk estimates in PTC
node >3 cm in largest dimension are classified as higher risk
In a pooled univariate analysis of 1849 PTC patients, the
N1 disease (>20% risk of recurrence) (335). Identification of
presence of a BRAFV600E mutation was associated with in-
extranodal extension of the tumor through the metastatic
creased disease-specific mortality, although this was not
lymph node capsule has also been associated with an in-
significantly associated with mortality in a multivariate
creased risk of recurrent/persistent disease (338,450). It is
analysis (370). However, a significant interaction between
difficult to estimate the risk associated with extension of the
BRAFV600E mutation and several conventional clinico-
tumor through the capsule of involved lymph nodes because
pathological risk factors was seen, such that the risk of
this histologic finding is tightly linked with both the number
mortality was higher in patients with BRAF mutation com-
of involved lymph nodes (338,450) and invasion of the tumor
pared to those with wild-type BRAF in the setting of lymph
through the thyroid capsule (450,549).
node metastases (11.1% vs. 2.6%, p < 0.001), distant metas-
It is also important to differentiate the clinical significance
tases (51.5% vs. 18.2%, p < 0.001), AJCC stage IV disease
of minor extrathyroidal extension (ATA intermediate risk)
(31.4% vs. 13%, p0.004), and age ‡45 years at diagnosis (8%
from gross extrathyroidal invasion of surrounding structures
vs. 1.9%, p < 0.001). In a systematic review and meta-
(ATA high risk). The risk of recurrence associated with
analysis of 14 publications that included 2470 PTC patients
minor extrathyroidal extension (pT3 disease manifest by
from nine different countries, the BRAFV600E mutation was
minimal extrathyroidal extension) ranges from 3% to 9%
associated with a significantly higher risk of recurrence than
(550–554), while the risk of recurrence in patients with gross
BRAF wild-type tumors (24.9% vs. 12.6%, p < 0.00001 [95%
extrathyroidal extension (pT4a disease involving the subcu-
CI 1.61–2.32]) (563). In the studies included in this meta-
taneous soft tissues, larynx, trachea, esophagus, or RLN)
analysis, the risk of recurrence in BRAFV600E-positive tumors
ranges from 23% to 40% (537,550,552–555).
ranged from 11% to 40% (median 26.5%), while the risk of
The encapsulated follicular variant of papillary thyroid
recurrence in BRAF wild-type tumors ranged from 2% to
carcinoma also appears to be associated with a low 10-year
36% (median 9.5%). Because the BRAFV600E mutation is
risk of recurrence (486,490,556). Only two recurrences were
tightly linked with the presence of aggressive histologic
reported in the 152 patients (1.3% risk of recurrence) de-
phenotypes, lymph node metastases, and extrathyroidal ex-
scribed in these three reports. No recurrences were described
tension, it is difficult to determine the proportion of risk that
in the 42 patients that had encapsulated FVPTC without
is attributable to the BRAF mutation versus that attributable
capsular or lymphovascular invasion in the series by Liu et al.
to the other clinico-pathologic features. Some studies
(486). However, the study by Baloch et al. (556) included a
(564,565), but not all (566–568), have demonstrated that the
single patient with encapsulated FVPTC that developed bone
BRAFV600E mutation is an independent predictor of risk of
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
45
recurrence in multivariate analysis. Furthermore, a recent
cular invasion, or lymph node metastases) as ATA low-risk
publication demonstrated a small, but statistically signifi-
tumors. The few patients (about 10% of PTMC patients) that
cant improvement in risk stratification if BRAF status was
demonstrate multifocal PTMC with extrathyroidal invasion
used in conjunction with the 2009 ATA initial risk stratifi-
and a BRAFV600E mutation would be considered as having
cation system (569). In a meta-analysis of 2167 patients, the
ATA intermediate risk for recurrence. Based on these data,
presence of a BRAFV600E mutation had a sensitivity of 65%
there appears to be little role for BRAF mutational testing as an
in identifying those tumors that subsequently recurred, but
aid to risk stratification in PTMC tumors that do not demon-
had a PPV of only 25% in predicting the risk of recur-
strate other worrisome clinico-pathologic features.
rence (563). Unlike previous studies that were often small
More recent data suggest that aggressive behavior of a
and primarily single-institution reports, a large multicen-
given thyroid carcinoma, including high probability of tumor
ter pooled-data evaluation of 2099 patients (1615 women,
recurrence, is likely when it harbors more than one known
484 men, median age 45 years) demonstrated that the
oncogenic mutation, and specifically a BRAF mutation co-
BRAFV600E mutation was significantly associated with the
occurring with a TERT promoter, PIK3CA, TP53, or AKT1
risk of recurrence in both classical PTC (20.7% vs. 12.4%,
mutation (155–157,577). Such a combination of several
HR 1.46 [95% CI 1.08–1.99] after adjustment for multi-
mutations is seen in a much smaller fraction of PTC as
ple clinico-pathological features), and FVPTC (21.3% vs.
compared with a 40%–45% incidence of BRAF mutations
7.0%, HR 3.20 [95% CI 1.46–7.02] after adjustment for
and is expected to serve as a more specific marker of unfa-
multiple clinico-pathological features). Based on these data, it
vorable outcomes of PTC.
appears that the BRAF status in isolation is not sufficient to
Two other molecular markers that appear to confer an
substantially contribute to risk stratification in most patients.
increased risk of tumor recurrence and tumor-related
However, an incremental improvement in risk stratification
mortality are TP53 and TERT mutations. TP53 mutations
can be achieved if the BRAF mutational status is considered in
have been known to occur mostly in poorly differentiated
the context of other standard clinico-pathological risk factors.
and anaplastic thyroid cancers. However, more recent
Since the clinical implications of this incremental improve-
broad mutational analyses identified TP53 mutations in 2
ment in risk stratification are not clear, we are not routinely
of 57 (3.5%) well-differentiated PTC and 4 of 36 (11%) of
recommending BRAF mutational evaluation for initial post-
well-differentiated FTC (578). Both PTCs in this series
operative risk stratification in DTC.
that were positive for TP53 mutations also showed muta-
The potential role of BRAF status in isolation as an aid to
tions in BRAF (or BRAF and PIK3CA) and developed lung
risk stratification in patients clinico-pathologically classi-
metastases. All four TP53-positive FTC (with no other
fied as having ATA low risk is currently being evaluated. In
coexisting mutations) were oncocytic, and three out of four
a cohort of low-risk patients with intrathyroidal PTC
of those were widely invasive FTC.
(<4 cm, N0, M0; 33% with BRAF mutation), the overall risk
Finally, recent studies identified TERT promoter muta-
of having structural disease recurrence over 5 years of
tions as a likely predictor of more unfavorable outcomes for
follow up was 3% (565). However, BRAFV600E-mutated
patients with thyroid cancer. TERT mutations were found in
tumors had a recurrence rate of 8% (8 of 106) compared
7%–22% of PTC and 14%–17% of FTC, but with a signif-
with only 1% (2 of 213) in BRAF wild-type tumors
icantly higher prevalence in dedifferentiated thyroid can-
( p = 0.003, Fisher’s exact). Furthermore, in multivariate
cers (154,579–581). In some (154,579), but not all (580)
analysis, the only clinico-pathological significant predictor
reports, TERT mutations were found more often in PTC
of persistent disease after 5 years of follow-up was the
carrying a BRAF mutation. In the largest reported series
presence of a BRAFV600E mutation. If these findings are
(332 PTC and 70 FTC followed on average for 8 years), a
verified in additional studies, it is possible that BRAF
TERT mutation was an independent predictor of disease-
testing could be used to help further risk stratify patients
free survival (odds ratio [OR] 4.68 [95% CI 1.54–14.27])
with intrathyroidal PTC as having very low risk of recur-
and mortality (HR 10.35 [95% CI 2.01–53.24]) for well-
rence (BRAF wild-type) or intermediate risk of recurrence
differentiated thyroid cancer (154). Furthermore, the com-
(BRAFV600E mutation).
bination of a TERT mutation and a BRAF mutation within
The impact of BRAF status on the risk of recurrence in the
the same tumor was associated with a high risk of structural
very low-risk patients (intrathyroidal unifocal papillary mi-
disease recurrence (155). These results, although pending
crocarcinomas <1 cm) appears to be small. Even though BRAF
confirmation in other studies, suggest that these molecular
mutation is present in 30%–67% of papillary microcarcinomas
markers, alone or in combination, may be helpful for risk
(152,153,156,566,570–576), the overall clinical recurrence
stratification of thyroid cancer and provide significantly
rate is quite low, ranging from 1% to 6% (274,566). In a series
more accurate risk assessment than BRAF mutational status
of 99 papillary microcarcinoma patients with an overall re-
taken in isolation.
currence rate of 7%, no recurrences were detected in the pa-
tients with a BRAFV600E mutation and intrathyroidal, unifocal
[B22] Potential impact of postoperative serum Tg on risk
tumors. Conversely, BRAFV600E-mutated multifocal PTMC
estimates
with extrathyroidal extension demonstrated a 20% recurrence
Several studies have demonstrated the clinical utility of a
rate (150). Therefore, in the absence of data demonstrating that
serum Tg measurement (either TSH stimulated or non-
the BRAFV600E mutation is associated with increased structural
stimulated) obtained a few weeks after total thyroidectomy
recurrence in very low-risk tumors, we have classified in-
(postoperative Tg) and before RAI remnant ablation as a tool
trathyroidal papillary microcarcinomas (T1a, N0, M0) har-
to aid in initial risk stratification and adjuvant therapy
boring BRAFV600E mutations with no other worrisome features
decision-making (See Recommendations 50B and 50C).
(such as extrathyroidal extension, aggressive histology, vas-
Please see section [C6] for discussion of Tg measurements.
46
HAUGEN ET AL.
[B23] Proposed modifications to the 2009 ATA initial risk
biology, but also the impact of initial therapy, which varies
stratification system
from thyroid lobectomy to total thyroidectomy with varying
While the 2009 risk stratification system has proven to be a
extents of lymph node dissection, either with or without RAI
valuable tool for initial risk stratification in PTC, modifica-
ablation, across the various studies. Additional studies are
tions are required to better incorporate our new understanding
needed to better define the risk of recurrence in most of these
regarding the risks associated with the extent of lymph node
clinical scenarios in patients randomized to receive one of
involvement, mutational status, and specific FTC histologies
several initial treatment options (lobectomy versus total
(Table 11). While the modified 2009 risk stratification system
thyroidectomy, extent of lymph node dissection, with or
continues to classify intrathyroidal PTC without vascular
without RAI ablation).
invasion as low risk, the category was expanded to include
patients with small-volume lymph node metastases (clinical
N0 or £5 pathologic N1 micrometastases, <0.2 cm in largest
[B25] How should initial risk estimates be modified
dimension), intrathyroidal encapsulated follicular variant of
over time?
PTC, intrathyroidal well-differentiated follicular cancer with
&
RECOMMENDATION 49
capsular or minor vascular invasion (<4 vessels involved),
Initial recurrence risk estimates should be continually
and intrathyroidal papillary microcarcinomas that are either
modified during follow-up, because the risk of recurrence
BRAF wild-type or BRAF mutated. Similarly, the modified
and disease-specific mortality can change over time as a
2009 intermediate-risk category continues to include patients
function of the clinical course of the disease and the re-
with microscopic invasion of the tumor into perithyroidal soft
sponse to therapy.
tissues, vascular invasion, uptake outside the thyroid bed at
the time of remnant ablation, and aggressive histologies, but
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
it has been modified to include only a subset of patients with
lymph node metastases (clinical N1 or >5 pathologic N1 with
While initial staging systems provide important insights
all involved lymph nodes <3 cm in largest dimension and
into an individual patient’s risk of recurrence and disease-
multifocal papillary microcarcinoma with extrathyroidal
specific mortality, they provide static, single-point estimates
extension and BRAF mutated (if known). Finally, the high-
of risk based only on data available at the time of initial
risk category continues to include patients with macroscopic
therapy. None of the currently available initial staging sys-
extrathyroidal extension, incomplete tumor resection, distant
tems are capable of using new data obtained during the course
metastases, and postoperative serum Tg suggestive of distant
of follow-up to modify the initial risk estimate. For example,
metastases, but it has been expanded to include patients with
an ATA low-risk patient that demonstrates a rising serum Tg
large-volume lymph node involvement (any metastatic
associated with cervical lymphadenopathy highly suspicious
lymph node ‡3 cm in largest dimension), and FTC with ex-
for recurrent disease at some point during follow-up would
tensive vascular invasion (>4 foci of vascular invasion or
still be classified as ATA low risk despite the presence of
extracapsular vascular invasion). While these modifications
clinical data demonstrating a high risk of recurrence. Con-
are based on our current literature review of the impact of the
versely, an ATA high-risk patient that remains NED over
individual risk factors, future studies will be required to
30 years of appropriate follow-up would still be classified as
validate this proposed modification to determine if the ad-
ATA high risk despite having a risk of recurrence that is
ditional modifying factors provide significant incremental
significantly lower than would have been predicted at the
improvement in risk stratification.
time of initial therapy.
Therefore, while the initial staging systems can be infor-
[B24] Risk of recurrence as a continuum of risk
mative in guiding therapeutic and early diagnostic follow-up
While the ATA initial risk stratification system provides
strategy decisions, a risk stratification system that incorpo-
a meaningful and valuable tool for predicting risk of recur-
rates individual response to therapy into a real-time, dynamic
rence when used as a three-tiered categorical staging system,
risk stratification scheme is needed to provide an individu-
additional insights can be gained if one appreciates that the
alized approach to ongoing management (582,583). One
risk of structural disease recurrence is a continuum of risk
approach that has been proposed is to use the risk estimates
that ranges from <1% in very low-risk patients to >50% in
from the initial staging systems to guide initial management
high-risk patients (see Fig. 4). Therefore, individualized
recommendations and then to incorporate a response-to-
management recommendations should be based not only
therapy assessment during follow-up to modify these initial
on the categorical risk of recurrence estimate, but also on a
risk estimates in an ongoing, dynamic process (584).
more individualized estimate of risk in which the ATA low-
Multiple studies have now shown that many patients ini-
and intermediate-risk categories are further characterized on
tially classified as intermediate or high risk of recurrence
the basis of respective clinical or pathologic features, such as
using initial staging systems can be reclassified as having a
the size of the primary tumor, number and size of loco-
subsequent low risk of recurrence based on having an ex-
regional lymph node metastases (as well as extranodal ex-
cellent response to initial therapy (538,539,542,586–601).
tension), specific histologic variant, vascular invasion, extent
Furthermore, the PVE values associated with staging sys-
of extrathyroidal extension, or other potentially important
tems that incorporated response-to-therapy variables into
factors.
revised risk estimates were significantly higher (62%–84%)
While the risk estimates presented in this section may be
than those seen with initial staging systems (<30%)
useful in guiding initial treatment selections (extent of initial
(538,542). These data indicate that long-term outcomes can
surgery, need for RAI ablation), it is important to recognize
be more reliably predicted using systems that adjust to new
that these risk estimates likely reflect not only the tumor
data over time.
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
47
[B26] Proposed terminology to classify response to ther-
the response-to-therapy reclassification system in patients
apy and clinical implications
treated with total thyroidectomy and RAI ablation, based on
All clinical, biochemical, imaging (structural and func-
the research from Tuttle et al. (538,539) and supported by
tional), and cytopathologic findings obtained during follow-
other studies, is described in Table 13. Specific suggestions
up should be used to redefine the clinical status of the patient
with regard to the application of response-to-therapy as-
and to assess their individual response to therapy. Ideally, the
sessments in patients treated with total thyroidectomy with-
global consideration of the composite findings of such an
out RAI ablation or with thyroid lobectomy have recently
assessment would allow for the disease status to be classified
been published by Momesso et al. (602).
into one of several discrete response to therapy risk strata as
proposed by Tuttle et al. (538,582). Potential challenges in
[B27] Excellent response: no clinical, biochemical, or
applying this specific system in routine clinical practice in-
structural evidence of disease after initial therapy (remission,
clude lack of validation in specific subgroups of patients
NED)
(such as those who had less than total thyroidectomy or those
These patients have no clinical, biochemical, or structural
not treated with RAI), the lack of published prospective data
evidence of disease identified on risk-appropriate follow-up
utilizing this system in clinical care, and some inconsistency
studies (Table 13). If a total thyroidectomy and RAI abla-
with other authors in classifying the significance of varying
tion were done, an excellent response was usually defined as a
levels of detectable Tg levels or imaging findings.
TSH-stimulated Tg of <1 ng/mL in the absence of struc-
The response to therapy restaging system was also not
tural or functional evidence of disease (and in the absence of
designed or specifically tested by developers to guide specific
anti-Tg antibodies) (538,539,542,586–601). An excellent
therapeutic decisions on primary therapy (such as use of
response to initial therapy is achieved in 86%–91% of
adjuvant treatment) because it has been designed for use after
ATA low-risk patients, 57%–63% of ATA intermediate-risk
primary therapy is completed. Prospective studies of the
patients,
and
14%–16%
of
ATA
high-risk
patients
value of this system for guiding extent of primary treatment,
(538,539,542).
including adjuvant treatment decisions, are needed. How-
In 20 retrospective studies, the risk of recurrence over 5–10
ever, given that there is emerging evidence that such a re-
years of follow-up ranged from 1% to 4% (median 1.8%) in
classification system has potential to be of great importance
patients who had an excellent response to therapy by 6–18
in ongoing clinical care of DTC patients after primary
months after total thyroidectomy and RAI remnant ablation
treatment, the details are described herein.
(538,539,542,586–601,603).
It is acknowledged that appropriate clinical application
The potential impact of this reclassification is the most
of such a system is highly dependent on the availability of
dramatic in the two-thirds of ATA intermediate-risk patients
high-quality biochemical testing and structural, and func-
who achieve an excellent response and therefore have their
tional imaging with appropriate interpretation (e.g., stan-
risk of having recurrent/persistent disease decreased from
dardized radiologic reporting). Therefore, applicability may
36%–43% (predicted by initial ATA risk stratification) to 1%–
be limited in settings where these procedures are not avail-
2%
(predicted
by
response-to-therapy
reclassification)
able or feasible.
(538,539). Because of the very low risk of structural disease
The concept and initial validation of the four response-to-
recurrence in ATA low risk patients (1%–3%), reclassification
therapy categories presented here were described by Tuttle
based on an excellent response to therapy has less practical
et al. (538) and modified in Vaisman et al. (328). As origi-
implications than in the intermediate- and high-risk patients.
nally conceived, these clinical outcomes described the best
While many of the studies reviewed primarily low-risk
response to initial therapy during the first 2 years of follow-up
DTC patients (586,588,595–598,601), the same low risk of
(538,582), but they are now being used to describe the clin-
recurrence following achievement of excellent response to
ical status at any point during follow-up.
therapy was seen in other studies that had substantial numbers
of intermediate-risk patients (538,539,542,587,591,592,604).
Excellent response: no clinical, biochemical, or
Furthermore, most studies also demonstrate that the few
structural evidence of disease
high-risk patients that achieve an excellent response to
Biochemical incomplete response: abnormal Tg or
therapy also have subsequent recurrence rates in the 1%–
rising anti-Tg antibody levels in the absence of local-
2% range (542,593,594,600). The one exception is the 14%
izable disease. Please see section [C6] for discussion of
risk of recurrence seen in the few ATA high-risk patients
Tg measurements.
that achieved remission in a series from Memorial Sloan-
Structural incomplete response: persistent or newly
Kettering Cancer Center (538), which is likely due to the
identified loco-regional or distant metastases
known referral bias of unusual and very high-risk cases.
Indeterminate response: nonspecific biochemical or
Nonetheless, high-risk patients that achieve an excellent
structural findings that cannot be confidently classified
response to therapy may require somewhat more intense
as either benign or malignant. This includes patients
follow-up than ATA low- and intermediate-risk patients
with stable or declining anti-Tg antibody levels without
demonstrating an excellent response to therapy. It is im-
definitive structural evidence of disease.
portant to note that patients at intermediate to high risk of
The majority of published studies examining response to
recurrence may require additional structural or functional
therapy in DTC have been performed in populations of pa-
imaging to rule out disease that may not be detected by US
tients whose primary treatment consisted of total thyroidec-
and Tg measurements prior to being classified as having an
tomy and RAI ablation. While the following sections will
excellent response (602). The details for choice of follow-up
provide the details of multiple studies examining response to
tests are found in another section of these guidelines [C4–
therapy, a simplified overview of the clinical implications of
C13], (Figs. 5–8).
48
HAUGEN ET AL.
Table 13. Clinical Implications of Response to Therapy Reclassification in Patients with Differentiated
Thyroid Cancer Treated with Total Thyroidectomy and Radioiodine Remnant Ablation
Category
Definitionsa
Clinical outcomes
Management implications
Excellent
Negative imaging
1%–4% recurrencec
An excellent response to therapy
response
and either
<1% disease specific deathc
should lead to an early
Suppressed Tg <0.2 ng/mLb
decrease in the intensity and
or
frequency of follow up and
TSH-stimulated Tg <1 ng/mLb
the degree of TSH suppression
Biochemical
Negative imaging
At least 30% spontaneously
If associated with stable or
incomplete
and
evolve to NEDd
declining serum Tg values, a
response
Suppressed Tg ‡1 ng/mLb
20% achieve NED after
biochemical incomplete
or
additional therapya
response should lead to
Stimulated Tg ‡10 ng/mLb
20% develop structural diseasea
continued observation with
or
<1% disease specific deatha
ongoing TSH suppression in
Rising anti-Tg antibody levels
most patients. Rising Tg or
anti-Tg antibody values should
prompt additional investigations
and potentially additional
therapies.
Structural
Structural or functional
50%–85% continue to have
A structural incomplete response
incomplete
evidence of disease
persistent disease despite
may lead to additional treatments
response
With any Tg level
additional therapye
or ongoing observation depending
With or without anti-Tg
Disease specific death rates as
on multiple clinico-pathologic
antibodies
high as 11% with loco-regional
factors including the size,
metastases and 50% with
location, rate of growth, RAI
structural distant metastasesa
avidity, 18FDG avidity, and
specific pathology of the
structural lesions.
Indeterminate
Nonspecific findings on
15%–20% will have structural
An indeterminate response should
response
imaging studies
disease identified during
lead to continued observation
Faint uptake in thyroid bed
follow-upa
with appropriate serial imaging
on RAI scanning
In the remainder, the nonspecific
of the nonspecific lesions and
Nonstimulated Tg detectable,
changes are either stable,
serum Tg monitoring.
but <1 ng/mL
or resolvea
Nonspecific findings that
Stimulated Tg detectable,
<1% disease specific deatha
become suspicious over time
but <10 ng/mL
can be further evaluated with
or
additional imaging or biopsy.
Anti-Tg antibodies stable or
declining in the absence
of structural or functional
disease
NED denotes a patient as having no evidence of disease at final follow-up.
aReferences (538,539).
bIn the absence of anti-Tg antibodies.
cReferences (538,539,542,586–593,595–601,1078).
dReferences (598,599,617–621).
eReferences (328,607,626,627,898).
While most studies have assessed response to therapy using
in low-risk patients, 1% in intermediate-risk patients, and 2.7%
TSH-stimulated Tg values obtained 6–18 months after initial
in high-risk patients who demonstrated nonstimulated Tg
therapy (538,539,542,586,588–590,593–595,597–600), at least
values <0.15 ng/mL at 9–18 months after initial therapy.
15 other studies have evaluated the response to surgical therapy
Smallridge et al. (606) described a 4.3% recurrence rate in 163
using a stimulated Tg obtained at the time of RAI remnant
low- to intermediate-risk DTC patients with nonstimulated Tg
ablation (605). Patients demonstrating an excellent response to
<0.1 ng/mL, measured a median of 1.8 years after initial sur-
therapy at this very early time point have a very low risk of
gery. Finally, Giovanella et al. (601) reported a 1.6% recur-
disease recurrence (605).
rence rate over 5–6 years of follow-up in 185 low-risk patients
Four additional studies used nonstimulated sensitive Tg
who had a nonstimulated Tg of <0.2 ng/mL and normal post-
assays to define an excellent response to therapy at various
operative neck US 6 months after remnant ablation.
time points after initial therapy with total thyroidectomy and
Further studies are needed to refine the precise Tg value
RAI remnant ablation (587,595,601,606). A recurrence rate of
cutoff used to define what should be an excellent response to
1.5% was seen in a cohort of 589 DTC patients who had a
therapy in patients treated with total thyroidectomy with or
nonstimulated Tg <0.27 ng/mL at 3 months after initial therapy
without RAI remnant ablation. In addition to determining
(595). Malandrino et al. (587) reported recurrence rates of 0%
whether TSH-stimulated Tg values are clinically helpful in
FIG. 5.
Clinical decision-
making and management
recommendations in ATA
low-risk DTC patients that
have undergone total thy-
roidectomy. R, recommen-
dation in text.
FIG. 6.
Clinical decision-
making and management
recommendations in ATA low
risk DTC patients that have
undergone less than total
thyroidectomy (lobectomy or
lobectomy with isthmu-
sectomy). R, recommenda-
tion in text.
49
50
HAUGEN ET AL.
FIG. 7.
Clinical decision-making
and management recommendations
in ATA intermediate risk DTC pa-
tients that have undergone total
thyroidectomy. R, recommendation
in text.
patients at very low risk for recurrence, Tg cut points need to be
structural evidence of disease that can be detected using risk-
defined for patients whose primary treatment consisted of thy-
appropriate structural and functional imaging (Table 13).
roid lobectomy or total thyroidectomy without RAI ablation.
Please see section [C6] for discussion of Tg measurements.
In summary, once a patient achieves an excellent response
Previous studies have used nonstimulated Tg values of >1 ng/mL
to therapy, the initial risk of recurrence estimate should be
or TSH-stimulated Tg values of >10 ng/mL to define a bio-
modified and the patient reclassified as having a subsequent
chemical incomplete response to therapy in patients treated
very low risk of recurrence. This reclassification into a very
with total thyroidectomy and RAI ablation (538,539,542).
low risk of recurrence status can occur as early as several
These studies used Tg assays with variable functional sen-
weeks (or several months) after initial therapy and is appli-
sitivities, so this definition may change over time, especially
cable to all DTC patients initially stratified as ATA low or
for the nonstimulated Tg values.
intermediate risk of recurrence and to the few ATA high-risk
A biochemical incomplete response is not an uncommon
patients that achieve an excellent response to therapy. Ap-
outcome and is seen in 11%–19% of ATA low-risk patients,
propriate reclassification into the excellent response category
21%–22% of ATA intermediate-risk patients, and 16%–18%
with its very low risk of recurrence should lead to re-
of ATA high-risk patients (538,539).
evaluation of intensity of diagnostic surveillance procedures
Clinical outcomes in these patients are usually very good,
and treatment, as discussed in other sections of these clinical
with as many as 56%–68% being classified as having NED at
practice guidelines [C4–C13] (Figs. 5–8).
final follow-up, while 19%–27% continue to have persis-
tently abnormal Tg values without structural correlate, and
[B28] Biochemical incomplete response: abnormal Tg
only 8%–17% developing structurally identifiable disease
values in the absence of localizable disease
over 5–10 years follow-up (538,539,607). No deaths have
These patients have persistently abnormal suppressed and/
been reported in patients with a biochemical incomplete re-
or stimulated Tg values or rising anti-Tg antibodies without
sponse to therapy followed for up to 10 years (539,607).
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
51
FIG. 8.
Clinical decision-
making and management
recommendations in ATA
high risk DTC patients that
have undergone total thy-
roidectomy and have no
gross residual disease re-
maining in the neck. R, rec-
ommendation in text.
Anti-Tg antibody levels measured over time in the same
Tg levels define an incomplete biochemical response to
assay can provide clinically useful information (608). Rising
therapy. The specific cut point that defines an ‘‘abnormal Tg’’
anti-Tg antibody titers (or new appearance of anti-Tg anti-
is dependent on the corresponding TSH value, the amount of
bodies) are associated with an increased risk of disease re-
residual normal thyroid tissue after thyroidectomy, whether
currence (609–614). Conversely, patients rendered free of
or not RAI ablation was performed, and the duration of time
disease with initial therapy will usually demonstrate a decline
since ablation, because Tg values often decline for months to
in anti-Tg antibody titers over several years (611,615,616).
years after ablation. To define a biochemical incomplete re-
Vaisman et al. (607) further demonstrated that the transi-
sponse, previous studies have used nonstimulated Tg values
tion to NED status occurred without any additional RAI or
of >5 ng/mL at 6 months (624), nonstimulated Tg values
surgical therapy (beyond LT4 suppressive therapy) in 34% of
>1 ng/mL more than 12 months after ablation (538,539,542),
patients classified as having a biochemical incomplete re-
or TSH-stimulated Tg values >10 ng/mL more than 1 year
sponse to initial therapy. These observations are consistent
after ablation (538,539). The precise Tg value for defining a
with several previous studies that have demonstrated that
biochemical incomplete response to therapy in patients treated
abnormal serum Tg values can gradually decline over time
with lobectomy or total thyroidectomy without ablation has
without additional RAI or surgical therapy, in the absence of
not been adequately defined. In addition, some studies also
structurally identifiable disease (598,599,617,617–621).
classified patients with persistent or rising anti-Tg antibodies
A small percentage of patients with a biochemical in-
in the absence of structurally identifiable disease as having a
complete response to therapy will demonstrate progressive
biochemical incomplete response to therapy (538,539,625).
increases in the nonstimulated Tg values over time. In pa-
In summary, a biochemical incomplete response is seen
tients treated with total thyroidectomy and RAI remnant
in approximately 15%–20% of DTC patients. Fortunately,
ablation, clinically significant increases in unstimulated se-
many of these patients are eventually reclassified as having
rum Tg values over time as described by Tg doubling times
NED at final follow-up, often without any additional RAI or
(<1 year, 1–3 years, or >3 years) (622) or rate of rise in
surgical treatments.
unstimulated Tg of ‡0.3 ng/mL/year over time (623), identify
patients at increased risk of developing structurally identifi-
[B29] Structural incomplete response: persistent or newly
able loco-regional or distant metastases.
identified loco-regional or distant metastases
Just as with the excellent response to therapy category,
These patients have structural or functional (RAI scan,
additional studies are needed to more precisely define what
18FDG-PET) evidence of loco-regional or distant metastases
52
HAUGEN ET AL.
(538,539,607). This category includes both patients with
thyroidectomy (629). Similarly, it is often difficult to be
biopsy-proven disease and also patients in whom structural or
certain whether or not very low-level detectable Tg values
functional disease is identified, which is highly likely to be
represent persistent disease or simply remnant normal thyroid
metastatic disease based on the clinical scenario (Table 13).
cells remaining after initial therapy.
A structural incomplete response to initial therapy is seen
An indeterminate response to initial therapy is seen in 12%–
in 2%–6% of ATA low-risk patients, 19%–28% of ATA
29% of ATA low-risk patients, 8%–23% of ATA intermediate-
intermediate-risk patients, and 67%–75% of ATA high-risk
risk patients, and 0%–4% of ATA high-risk patients (538,539).
patients (538,539).
The clinical outcomes in patients with an indeterminate re-
Despite additional treatments, the majority of patients
sponse to therapy are intermediate between patients with an
classified as having a structural incomplete response will
excellent response and those with incomplete responses. Two
have persistent structural and/or biochemical evidence of
series have demonstrated that only 13%–20% of patients with
persistent disease at final follow-up (539,607). Depending on
an indeterminate response to therapy are reclassified as per-
the definition used to describe patients as free from disease,
sistent/recurrent disease over approximately 10 years of follow-
higher rates of remission (29%–51%) have been described
up. In the remaining 80%–90% of patients, the nonspecific
following surgical intervention for patients with persistent/
findings either remain stable or resolve with observation alone.
recurrent loco-regional disease (626–628). While no deaths
In summary, the majority of patients with an indeterminate
were reported over a follow-up period that extended to 15
response to therapy remain disease-free during prolonged
years in patients with biochemical incomplete response to
follow-up. However, up to 20% of these patients will even-
therapy, death from disease was seen in 11% of patients with
tually have biochemical, functional, or structural evidence of
a loco-regional incomplete response and in 57% of patients
disease progression and may require additional therapies.
with structurally identifiable distant metastases (539,607).
In summary, a structural incomplete response to initial
[B31] Using risk stratification to guide disease surveillance
therapy identifies a cohort of DTC patients that may not be
and therapeutic management decisions
cured with additional therapies and consequently demon-
Risk stratification is the cornerstone of individualized
strate the highest risk of disease-specific mortality of any of
thyroid cancer management. Initial risk estimates are useful
the response-to-therapy categories. Persistent/recurrent loco-
to guide the wide variety of clinical management decisions
regional structural disease may have a higher likelihood of
that need to be made around the time of initial diagnosis and
responding to additional treatments and has significantly
treatment. As described in this document, initial manage-
lower disease-specific mortality rates than persistent/recur-
ment decisions are largely made by balancing the estimates
rent distant metastases.
of the risk of recurrence and the risk of disease-specific
mortality with the potential benefits and risks of proposed
[B30] Indeterminate response: biochemical or structural
therapies. However, in clinical practice many other risk
findings that cannot be classified as either benign or malig-
estimates can also significantly influence surveillance and
nant (acceptable response)
therapeutic decision-making, including the risk of failing
Patients with an indeterminate response have biochemical,
initial therapy, the risk of having non–RAI-avid disease, the
structural, or functional findings that cannot be confidently
risk of disease recurring without making appreciable
classified as either excellent response or persistent disease
amounts of serum Tg, the risk of adjuvant RAI therapy, the
(328,538,539,606,629) (Table 13). Rather than forcing these
risk of additional thyroid surgery, the risk of additional
patients into either the excellent or incomplete response-to-
lymph node surgery, the risk of external beam radiation
therapy categories, some investigators have recommended a
therapy, and the risk of systemic therapy. Individual manage-
separate category for these patients so that they can be con-
ment recommendations require that the risks and benefits of
tinued to be carefully observed, with selected patients iden-
potential surveillance and therapeutic management decisions
tified for further evaluation with testing designed to establish
be carefully evaluated in the context of the specific clinico-
the presence or absence of disease (538,539).
pathologic features of each patient.
For example, this category includes patients with sub-
Nonetheless, initial risk estimates can be used to guide rec-
centimeter avascular thyroid bed nodules or atypical cervical
ommendations with regard to the extent of thyroid surgery,
lymph nodes that have not been biopsied, faint uptake in the
the need for and extent of cervical lymph node dissection,
thyroid bed with undetectable stimulated Tg on follow-up
the need for and the dose of administered activities of RAI, the
imaging, or nonspecific abnormalities on functional or cross-
need for and degree of TSH suppression, the need for and
sectional imaging. Also included in this category are patients
details of external beam radiation therapy, the need for and
with nonstimulated Tg values that are detectable but <1 ng/
types of systemic therapy, the need for and types of studies
mL, TSH-stimulated Tg values between 1 and 10 ng/mL, and
required for initial staging, and the intensity and type of follow-
stable or declining Tg antibodies in the same assay over time
up studies required for evaluating response to therapy in the
in the absence of structural disease (538,539).
early years following initial therapy. This approach tailors the
This issue was exemplified in a recent study evaluating the
aggressiveness of intervention and follow-up to the specific
prognostic value of a highly sensitive Tg assay in which the
risks associated with the tumor in an individual patient.
response to therapy could not be definitively established in 16
In summary, this risk-adapted management approach uti-
patients that had small indeterminate pulmonary micro-
lizes initial risk estimates to guide early surveillance and
nodules without other evidence for persistent disease (606).
therapeutic management decisions. These initial manage-
A similar situation arises when trying to determine the re-
ment plans are then modified over time as additional data
sponse to therapy in the 34% of patients that demonstrated
accumulate and allow for restratification based on individ-
nonspecific subcentimeter thyroid bed nodules after total
ual response to therapy. This system tailors the extent and
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
53
intensity of therapy and follow-up studies to real-time risk
the Tg cutoff used for analysis, the individual risk of having
estimates that evolve over time for individual patients.
RAI-avid loco-regional or distant metastasis, the time elapsed
since total thyroidectomy, and/or the sensitivity of the post-
[B32] Should postoperative disease status
therapy scanning technique (SPECT/CT vs. planar imaging).
be considered in decision-making for RAI therapy
Multiple studies have confirmed an increase risk of re-
for patients with DTC?
currence following total thyroidectomy and RAI remnant
ablation in patients that had a postoperative TSH-stimulated
&
RECOMMENDATION 50
Tg >1–2 ng/mL at the time of ablation (596,605,630–637). In
multivariate analysis, the postoperative Tg is often found to
(A) Postoperative disease status (i.e., the presence or ab-
be an independent predictor of persistent or recurrent disease
sence of persistent disease) should be considered in de-
(596,630,631,636,637). Furthermore, the risk of having re-
ciding whether additional treatment (e.g., RAI, surgery, or
current or persistent disease increases as the postoperative Tg
other treatment) may be needed.
rises (634,636). Using receiver operator curve analyses,
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
thyroid hormone withdrawal postoperative Tg values be-
tween 20 and 30 ng/mL achieve the optimal balance of sen-
(B) Postoperative serum Tg (on thyroid hormone therapy
sitivity and specificity for predicting recurrent or persistent
or after TSH stimulation) can help in assessing the per-
disease (638–640). Furthermore, high postoperative stimu-
sistence of disease or thyroid remnant and predicting po-
lated Tg values (>10–30 ng/mL) are also associated with
tential future disease recurrence. The Tg should reach its
poorer survival (636,639,641). Conversely, postoperative
nadir by 3–4 weeks postoperatively in most patients.
stimulated Tg values less than 1–2 ng/mL are strong predic-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
tors of remission (634,636). Even in ATA low- and
intermediate-risk patients that did not receive RAI remnant
(C) The optimal cutoff value for postoperative serum Tg or
ablation, a nonstimulated postoperative Tg <1 ng/mL was
state in which it is measured (on thyroid hormone therapy
associated with excellent clinical outcomes and recurrence
or after TSH stimulation) to guide decision-making re-
rates <1% (642). The median follow-up in this study was 62
garding RAI administration is not known.
months (2–116 months). Therefore, a postoperative serum Tg
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
can provide valuable information with regard to the likeli-
hood of achieving remission or having persistent or recurrent
(D) Postoperative diagnostic RAI WBSs may be useful
disease in response to an initial therapy.
when the extent of the thyroid remnant or residual disease
A postoperative Tg <10 ng/mL may not distinguish be-
cannot be accurately ascertained from the surgical report
tween nodal disease and thyroid remnant, when evaluated
or neck ultrasonography, and when the results may alter
using concurrent RAI scans with SPECT/CT (643). In one
the decision to treat or the activity of RAI that is to be
of the prospective studies mentioned previously, a postop-
administered. Identification and localization of uptake foci
erative Tg threshold of >5 ng/mL was suggested as an in-
may be enhanced by concomitant single photon emission
dication for RAI treatment (633). However, in a recent
computed tomography–computed tomography (SPECT/
retrospective review of consecutive low-risk patients trea-
CT). When performed, pretherapy diagnostic scans should
ted with total thyroidectomy without RAI, an unstimulated
utilize 123I (1.5–3 mCi) or a low activity of 131I (1–3 mCi),
Tg of ‡2 ng/mL with a concomitant median TSH level of
with the therapeutic activity optimally administered within
0.48 mIU/L was reported to detect all patients with disease
72 hours of the diagnostic activity.
recurrence (76 patients followed for a median of 2.5 years)
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
(644). Thus, there is some uncertainty as to what degree of
postoperative stimulated or unstimulated thyroglobulinemia
Postoperative disease status is a relevant consideration in
(with or without neck US interpretation) may be appropriate
postoperative treatment decision-making after initial con-
to prompt RAI treatment. Moreover, detection of unex-
sideration of clinic-pathologic stage. Evaluation of postop-
plained inappropriate thyroglobulinemia may prompt con-
erative disease status may be performed by a number of
sideration of further investigation for its cause (e.g.,
means including serum Tg, neck ultrasonography, and iodine
imaging studies).
radioisotope scanning. There are currently no RCTs com-
The postoperative Tg can also be used to predict the
paring any particular postoperative diagnostic strategy with
likelihood of identifying RAI-avid metastatic thyroid cancer
the intention of modulating decision-making on RAI remnant
outside the thyroid bed on the posttherapy scan at the time of
ablation or RAI treatment for DTC.
remnant ablation. No uptake outside the thyroid bed was
identified in 63 low-risk patients with a nonstimulated post-
[B33] Utility of postoperative serum Tg in clinical decision-
operative Tg of <0.4 ng/mL (630) or in 132 low-risk patients
making
with a thyroid hormone withdrawal Tg of <1 ng/mL (645).
Serum Tg measurements (with anti-Tg antibodies), with or
However, RAI-avid metastatic foci outside the thyroid bed
without neck US, are frequently performed as part of the early
were detected in 12% of intermediate-risk patients with a
postoperative evaluation. Please see section [C6] for dis-
suppressed Tg of <0.6 ng/mL (646), 5.6% of intermediate/
cussion of Tg measurements. The predictive value of the
high risk patients with a suppressed Tg of <1 .0 ng/mL (647),
postoperative Tg value will be significantly influenced by a
and 6.3% of intermediate/high-risk patients with a thyroid
wide variety of factors including the amount of residual thyroid
hormone withdrawal stimulated Tg of <2 ng/mL (648). The
cancer and/or normal thyroid tissue, the TSH level at the time
likelihood of finding RAI-avid metastatic disease on the post-
of Tg measurement, the functional sensitivity of the Tg assay,
therapy scan is substantially lower (2.8%) if the postoperative
54
HAUGEN ET AL.
Tg is undetectable in three different Tg assays than if it
withdrawal (with goal TSH of >30 mIU/L), at the time of
is undetectable only in a single assay (30%) (649). Con-
administration of 100–200 mCi of 131I (for remnant ablation
versely, the likelihood of identifying either loco-regional
or treatment), was associated with the following NPVs for
or distant metastases on the posttherapy scan increases as
biochemical or structural recurrence at 6–12 months: 98.4%
either the suppressed or stimulated Tg values rise above
for ATA low-risk patients, 94.1% for ATA intermediate-risk
5–10 ng/mL (631,646,647,650). Therefore, neither a stim-
patients, and 50% in the ATA high-risk group. They further
ulated or suppressed postoperative Tg of <1 ng/mL can
reported that the NPVs increased to 97.2%, and 100% for
completely eliminate the possibility that a posttherapy RAI
ATA intermediate- and high-risk patients, respectively, when
scan will identify metastatic foci outside the thyroid bed.
the stimulated Tg values were combined with negative neck
However, postoperative Tg values greater than 5–10 ng/mL
US findings at baseline (with no change in low-risk patients).
increase the likelihood of identifying RAI-avid metastatic
Similar significant decreases in the risk of recurrence were
disease on the posttherapy scan.
seen when ATA intermediate- and high-risk patients had a
The postoperative serum Tg value can also be used to
normal postoperative neck US (660).
predict the likelihood of successful remnant ablation. Post-
operative thyroid hormone withdrawal stimulated Tg values
[B35] Role of postoperative radioisotope diagnostic scan-
>5–6 ng/mL were associated with higher rates of failed ab-
ning in clinical decision-making
lation after administered activities of both 30 mCi (651) and
Iodine radioisotope diagnostic testing may include 131I or
100 mCi (652). A TSH-stimulated Tg >6 ng/mL was asso-
123I diagnostic imaging with or without SPECT-CT, and/or
ciated with a 5-fold greater risk of failing ablation after an
RAI uptake measurements. Postoperative RAI planar imaging
activity of 30 mCi administered after preparation with thy-
(123I or 131I, with or without SPECT-CT) has been reported to
roid hormone withdrawal (651).
yield information that could alter clinical management (such as
It does appear that a postoperative Tg value (either TSH-
altering disease status assessment) in 25%–53% of patients, as
stimulated or nonstimulated) is an important prognostic
reported in single-center, retrospective studies (643,661,662).
factor that can be used to guide clinical management. Given a
However, in a multivariate analysis of retrospective data, Hu
disappearance half-life of 1–3 days (653–658), the postop-
et al. (663) reported that the use of 5 mCi of 131I between 4 and
erative Tg should reach its nadir by 3–4 weeks postopera-
11 days prior to remnant ablation was independently associated
tively in nearly all patients. In low-risk patients, a suppressed
with an increased risk of remnant ablation failure. In contrast, in
or stimulated Tg <1 ng/mL is very reassuring and further
a smaller retrospective study, the administration of 3–5 mCi of
confirms classification of the patients as being at low risk. In
131I for scanning 2–5 days prior to ablation in 37 patients was
intermediate-risk patients, postoperative Tg values <1 ng/mL
not associated with any significant reduction in remnant abla-
are reassuring, but do not completely rule out the presence of
tion success, compared to no pretherapy scanning in 63 patients
small-volume RAI-avid metastatic disease. However, even
(131I therapeutic activity of 100–200 mCi used in both groups)
without RAI ablation, many intermediate risk patients have
(664). A possible relationship between 131I diagnostic scan
excellent clinical outcomes. Therefore, it is not clear that
activity on remnant ablation success was suggested in another
additional therapy is required in these intermediate-risk pa-
retrospective study, in which success was lower following the
tients with postoperative Tg values <1 ng/mL even though
use of 3 mCi as compared to 1 mCi of 131I, 9 days before
small-volume RAI-avid disease may still be present after
therapeutic administration of 100 mCi (665). In two small
thyroidectomy.
RCTs, there was no significant impact of 131I scanning
On the other hand, postoperative Tg values (stimulated or
compared to 123I scanning on the rate of successful remnant
nonstimulated) greater than 10–30 ng/mL increase the like-
ablation (666,667). The timing of whole-body diagnostic
lihood of having persistent or recurrent disease, failing initial
scans following administration of radioisotopes in reviewed
RAI ablation, having distant metastases, and dying of thyroid
studies ranged from about 24 to 72 hours for 131I (643,662,
cancer. Therefore, postoperative Tg values >10 ng/mL will
663,665–667) and was 24 hours for 123I (661,662,666). The
likely lead to additional evaluations and possibly even ad-
tailoring of RAI therapeutic activity according to RAI
ditional therapies.
neck uptake (measured 24 hours after administration of 1
With regard to decision-making on the need for RAI
mCi of 131I) was associated with a lower rate of remnant
remnant ablation, it appears that the postoperative serum Tg
ablation success than fixed dosing, in another single-center
value will be more helpful in identifying patients that may
retrospective observational study (668). Furthermore, in a
benefit from RAI ablation rather than in identifying patients
multivariate analysis of retrospective data (adjusted for rel-
that do not require ablation. For example, a postoperative Tg
evant risk factors), Verburg et al. (669) reported that the use
value >5–10 ng/mL may lead to selection of RAI ablation in
of 1 mCi of 131I for calculation of RAI neck uptake 2 days
an ATA low-risk patient or ATA intermediate-risk patient that
before remnant ablation was independently associated with
otherwise would not have required RAI ablation (selective
an increased risk of remnant ablation failure, although Yap
use) in order to improve initial staging and facilitate follow-
and Murby showed that 1.1 mCi 131I diagnostic scans did not
up. Conversely, in high-risk patients, a postoperative Tg value
adversely affect the success of ablation or recurrence rate at
<1 ng/mL does not rule out RAI-avid disease and therefore is
3 years (670).
unlikely to alter the decision to proceed with RAI ablation.
There continues to be discussion on the utility of postoper-
ative iodine radioisotope diagnostic scanning (with or without
[B34] Potential role of postoperative US in conjunction with
SPECT/CT) in guiding RAI therapeutic decision-making.
postoperative serum Tg in clinical decision-making
Valuable information on disease status, remnant uptake, and
In a prospective study of 218 DTC patients, Lee et al. (659)
the presence of residual RAI-avid disease may be obtained by
reported that a stimulated Tg <2 ng/mL after thyroid hormone
such testing, which could alter management and potentially
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
55
benefit outcome. Questions regarding the potentially negative
efficacy are lacking), or others. It is important to note that in
impact of such scans with 131I on RAI therapeutic efficacy for
patients with low-risk DTC, disease surveillance may be
successful remnant ablation (‘‘stunning’’) may be mitigated or
accomplished without RAI ablation using neck US and Tg
avoided by the use of either low-activity 131I (1–3 mCi) or
with Tg antibody measurements while on thyroid hormone
alternative isotopes such as 123I.
therapy.
We categorized the results of our review according to the
[B36] What is the role of RAI (including remnant
ATA Risk of Recurrence Risk stratification (outlined in a
ablation, adjuvant therapy, or therapy
preceding section of these guidelines). However, given that
for persistent disease) after thyroidectomy
the ATA risk classification is relatively new and the majority
in the primary management of DTC?
of studies examining therapeutic efficacy of postsurgical RAI
remnant ablation or therapy (adjuvant or for persistent dis-
&
RECOMMENDATION 51 (details in Table 14)
ease) have been performed with attention to traditional
mortality risk stratification systems such as the AJCC/TNM
(A) RAI remnant ablation is not routinely recommended
system, MACIS, National Thyroid Cancer Treatment Co-
after thyroidectomy for ATA low-risk DTC patients.
operative Study Group (NTCTCSG), or others, it was nec-
Consideration of specific features of the individual patient
essary to extrapolate the results of many studies according to
that could modulate recurrence risk, disease follow-up
estimated ATA risk level. We have also categorized some of
implications, and patient preferences are relevant to RAI
the results of our evidence review according to the AJCC/
decision-making.
TNM risk of mortality stratification system because this
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
system has been in use longer in our field (Table 14). Eva-
luation of postoperative disease status and recommendations
(B) RAI remnant ablation is not routinely recommended
for RAI remnant ablation and adjuvant therapy can be found
after lobectomy or total thyroidectomy for patients with
in algorithms in Figs. 5–8.
unifocal papillary microcarcinoma, in the absence of other
adverse features.
ATA low risk.
Studies examining the impact of RAI
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
remnant ablation/adjuvant therapy on long-term thyroid
cancer outcomes in ATA low-risk patients are subject to
(C) RAI remnant ablation is not routinely recommended
limitations due to their observational nature (and potential for
after thyroidectomy for patients with multifocal papillary
bias), as well as limited statistical power to detect relatively
microcarcinoma in absence of other adverse features.
uncommon events (such as disease-related mortality). By
Consideration of specific features of the individual patient
definition, the risk of disease-specific mortality is low, the
that could modulate recurrence risk, disease follow-up
risk of persistent/recurrent disease is low (around 3%), and
implications, and patient preferences are relevant to RAI
there is no evidence that delayed discovery and treatment of
decision-making.
persistent disease may decrease the chance of cure in these
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
patients. In a retrospective multicenter registry study, 1298
DTC patients categorized as being in the ATA low-risk
(D) RAI adjuvant therapy should be considered after
level, were followed for a median of 10.3 years, and there was
total thyroidectomy in ATA intermediate-risk level DTC
no significant effect of RAI adjuvant therapy on overall
patients.
or disease-free survival, using respective multivariate and
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
stratified propensity analysis techniques (544). Prospective
data from the NTCTCSG suggest that overall disease-specific
(E) RAI adjuvant therapy is routinely recommended after
and disease-free survival are not improved by RAI treatment
total thyroidectomy for ATA high risk DTC patients
in NTCTCSG stage I and II patients (i.e., patients aged <45
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
years with no distant metastases or patients aged ‡45 years
with a primary tumor <4 cm in diameter, no extrathyroidal
Depending on the postoperative risk stratification of the
extension, and no nodal metastases), also using multivariate
individual patient, the primary goal of postoperative admin-
analyses and propensity analyses (671,672). In two system-
istration of RAI after total thyroidectomy may include (i)
atic reviews examining results of multivariate adjusted ana-
RAI remnant ablation (to facilitate detection of recurrent
lyses, with a focus on low-risk DTC using classic clinic-
disease and initial staging by tests such as Tg measurements
pathologic staging systems such as TNM/AJCC, the majority
or whole-body RAI scans), (ii) RAI adjuvant therapy (in-
of studies did not show a significant effect of RAI adjuvant
tended to improve disease-free survival by theoretically
therapy in reducing thyroid cancer–related death, and con-
destroying suspected, but unproven residual disease, es-
flicting findings of studies relating to outcomes of disease
pecially in patients at increased risk of disease recurrence),
recurrence (673,674). A more recent systematic review of
or (iii) RAI therapy (intended to improve disease-specific
the literature supported the findings of the earlier systematic
and disease-free survival by treating persistent disease in
reviews (675). It is important to note that in the studies
higher risk patients). Additional considerations in RAI
summarized in this section on ATA low-risk disease (or
decision-making may include patient comorbidities (and
equivalent), patients with multifocal PTC were generally
the potential impact of therapeutic doses of RAI or prepa-
included (if no other adverse features meeting criteria for
ration for the procedure), feasible or preferred disease
upstaging were noted). To date, there is little evidence to
surveillance procedures, patient preferences (the latter be-
suggest that RAI may improve disease-specific mortality in
ing particularly important when clear data on therapeutic
low-risk DTC patients, and there is some conflicting evidence
56
HAUGEN ET AL.
Table 14. Characteristics According to the American Thyroid Association Risk Stratification System
and AJCC/TNM Staging System That May Impact Postoperative Radioiodine Decision-Making
Body of evidence
Body of evidence
suggests RAI im-
suggests RAI im-
ATA risk
proves disease-
proves disease-
Staging (TNM)
Description
specific survival?
free survival?
Postsurgical RAI indicated?
ATA low risk
Tumor size £1 cm
No
No
No
T1a
(uni-or multi-
N0,Nx
focal)
M0,Mx
ATA low risk
Tumor size
No
Conflicting
Not routineb—May be considered for
T1b,T2
>1–4 cm
observational
patients with aggressive histology or
N0, Nx
data
vascular invasion (ATA intermedi-
M0,Mx
ate risk).
ATA low to in-
Tumor size >4 cm
Conflicting data
Conflicting
Considerb—Need to consider presence
termediate risk
observational
of other adverse features. Advancing
T3
data
age may favor RAI use in some
N0,Nx
cases, but specific age and tumor
M0,Mx
size cutoffs subject to some
uncertainty.a
ATA low to in-
Microscopic
No
Conflicting
Considerb—Generally favored based
termediate risk
ETE, any
observational
on risk of recurrent disease. Smaller
T3
tumor size
data
tumors with microscopic ETE may
N0,Nx
not require RAI.
M0,Mx
ATA low to in-
Central compart-
No, except possi-
Conflicting
Considerb—Generally favored, due to
termediate risk
ment neck
bly in subgroup
observational
somewhat higher risk of persistent
T1-3
lymph node
of patients ‡45
data
or recurrent disease, especially with
N1a
metastases
years of age
increasing number of large
M0,Mx
(NTCTCSG
(>2–3 cm) or clinically evident
Stage III)
lymph nodes or presence of extra-
nodal extension. Advancing age may
also favor RAI use.a However, there
is insufficient data to mandate RAI
use in patients with few (<5)
microscopic nodal metastases in
central compartment in absence of
other adverse features.
ATA low to in-
Lateral neck or
No, except possi-
Conflicting
Considerb—Generally favored, due to
termediate risk
mediastinal
bly in subgroup
observational
higher risk of persistent or recurrent
T1-3
lymph node
of patients ‡45
data
disease, especially with increasing
N1b
metastases
years of age
number of macroscopic or clinically
M0,Mx
evident lymph nodes or presence of
extranodal extension. Advancing
age may also favor RAI use.a
ATA high risk
Any size,
Yes,
Yes,
Yes
T4
gross ETE
observational
observational
Any N
data
data
Any M
ATA high risk
Distant metastases
Yes,
Yes,
Yes
M1
observational
observational
Any T
data
data
Any N
aRecent data from the NTCTCSG (National Thyroid Cancer Treatment Cooperative Study Group) have suggested that a more appropriate
prognostic age cutoff for their and other classification systems could be 55 years, rather than 45 years, particularly for women.
bIn addition to standard clinicopathologic features, local factors such as the quality of preoperative and postoperative US evaluations,
availability and quality of Tg measurements, experience of the operating surgeon, and clinical concerns of the local disease management
team may also be considerations in postoperative RAI decision-making.
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
57
on effect on recurrence, with newer data using the ATA risk
benefits observed in patients with N1b disease, as well as with
system suggesting the lack of a significant effect. Further-
lymph nodes >1 cm in diameter (686). RAI therapeutic effi-
more, the majority of the best available observational evi-
cacy in patients <45 years of age with nodal metastases are
dence suggests that RAI adjuvant therapy is unlikely to
unclear because such patients are categorized as stage I by the
improve disease-specific or disease-free survival in papillary
NTCTCSG system and no significant benefit of RAI treat-
microcarcinoma (<1 cm, uni- or multifocal), in the absence of
ment was observed for the stage I group in that study, with no
other higher risk features (146,676–680). In a recent retro-
specific subgroup analysis reported according to node posi-
spective analysis of 704 papillary microcarcinoma patients
tivity (671). A single-center retrospective study from the
whose initial risk level was ATA low or intermediate who
Mayo Clinic examining 20-year cause-specific mortality
were followed for a median of 64 months, there was no sig-
and recurrence rate, suggested no significant benefit in PTC
nificant reduction in recurrence rates in patients treated with
patients with a MACIS score of <6 who had positive lymph
RAI compared to those not treated with RAI using a pro-
nodes, using respective univariate analyses (278). Given
pensity score analysis (677). With respect to microcarcinomas
that age is incorporated in the MACIS score, it is possible
of follicular cancer and Hu¨rthle cell cancer, a recent SEER
that age was a contributing factor in the results of that
registry secondary data analysis suggested no disease-specific
analysis. In a subgroup of 352 patients with microscopic
survival benefit in patients treated with RAI in a multivariate
extrathyroidal extension from a single-center retrospective
analysis adjusted for age, histology, disease extent, type of
study, postsurgical RAI treatment was associated with a
surgery, and external beam radiation therapy (the total num-
reduction in rate of local relapse (686). However, in the
ber of patients in this study was 564) (681). A limitation of
NTCTCSG study, microscopic extraglandular invasion
interpreting these data on follicular and Hu¨rthle cell micro-
would be classified as NTCTCSG stage I for patients <45
carcinomas is that some of the patients in the study had some
years of age and II for those ‡45 years of age, and those
adverse features and were not all considered low risk; how-
stages were associated with lack of clear benefit of RAI. In a
ever, the authors adjusted for relevant variables in their
recent systematic review, Lamartina et al. (675) reported
multivariate analysis (681). The role of RAI adjuvant therapy
conflicting results on the impact of RAI treatment on disease
in ATA low-risk DTC should be clarified in the future, fol-
recurrence, specifically indicating that 11 nonrandomized
lowing completion of RCTs, such as the Iodine or Not (IoN)
studies suggested a benefit, whereas 13 studies did not show a
trial for low- and intermediate-risk patients (682) and ESTI-
significant benefit. For patients with ATA intermediate-risk
MABL2 for low-risk patients.
DTC, limited risk-group specific data examining RAI efficacy
is available, but existing data suggest that the greatest po-
ATA intermediate risk.
Multivariate adjusted analyses
tential benefit may be observed with adverse thyroid cancer
from SEER suggest that postsurgical RAI treatment is as-
histologies, increasing volume of nodal disease, lymph node
sociated with improved overall survival for aggressive PTC
disease outside the central neck, and advancing patient age.
histologies such as tall cell, diffuse sclerosing, and insular
Benefits regarding survival or recurrence can be expected pri-
variants (683,684). Furthermore, multivariate adjusted an-
marily in patients with higher risk of recurrent or persis-
alyses from SEER suggest that RAI treatment is associated
tent disease that is iodine avid. More studies are needed,
with improved overall survival in node-positive adult pa-
including RCTs, to characterize RAI treatment efficacy in ATA
tients with PTC or pT3 node-negative PTC, in which the
intermediate-risk patients. The adjuvant therapeutic efficacy of
primary tumor is >4 cm or there is evidence of microscopic
RAI treatment in improving long-term thyroid cancer outcomes
extrathyroidal extension (685). It is important to note,
in the situation of isolated microscopic central neck nodal dis-
however, that in this SEER study the overall survival rate
ease in the absence of other adverse features is unknown, so the
was very high in node-positive or pT3-node negative PTC
relatively good overall prognosis of this group (as outlined in
patients aged <45 years, such that 99% and 98% of such
the preceding section of these guidelines) as well as the un-
individuals were alive after a median follow-up period of
certain RAI therapeutic efficacy for this subgroup, are important
6.8 years, with or without RAI treatment, respectively. The
considerations in RAI decision-making. Clearly more research
clinical significance of this approximately 1% absolute risk
is needed to understand the therapeutic efficacy in various
difference could be questioned. In contrast, in the same
subgroups of patients in the ATA intermediate-risk category.
study, for individuals aged ‡65 years, assuming the same
median study follow-up period of 6.8 years, 73% of T3-node
ATA high risk.
A prospective multicenter study reported a
negative or node-positive PTC patients treated with RAI
significant improvement in overall and disease-specific mor-
and 69% of those not treated with RAI were alive (685); in
tality, as well as disease-free survival in NTCTCSG stage III
this older subgroup, the absolute risk difference would be
and IV patients, after statistical adjustment using multivariate
estimated to be about 4%.
and propensity stratified analyses (671). Furthermore, pro-
There is some supportive evidence from multivariate and
spectively collected data from the SEER cancer registry sug-
propensity analyses that there may be a benefit of adjuvant
gest that postsurgical RAI therapy is associated with improved
RAI treatment in improving overall and disease-specific
overall survival in patients with PTC with distant metastases
survival as well as disease-free survival in patients with nodal
(when distant metastases were combined with age >45 years,
metastases aged ‡45 years, as such patients would be in-
tumor size >2 cm, and positive lymph nodes at primary diag-
cluded in the NTCTCSG stage III category (671). Further-
nosis) (687). Data from SEER also suggest that overall sur-
more, in a single-center retrospective study from Hong Kong
vival in patients with FTC with distant metastases more than
examining data from a subgroup of 421 patients with node-
doubled in patients receiving postsurgical RAI treat-
positive PTC, lymph node failure-free survival was improved
ment (687). Thus, routine postsurgical RAI treatment is re-
with postsurgical RAI treatment, with the greatest treatment
commended in patients with ATA high-risk DTC.
58
HAUGEN ET AL.
[B37] What is the role of molecular marker status
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
in therapeutic RAI decision-making?
(B) A goal TSH of >30 mIU/L has been generally adopted
&
RECOMMENDATION 52
in preparation for RAI therapy or diagnostic testing, but
The role of molecular testing in guiding postoperative RAI
there is uncertainty relating to the optimum TSH level
use has yet to be established; therefore, no molecular test-
associated with improvement in long-term outcomes.
ing to guide postoperative RAI use can be recommended at
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
this time.
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
Thyrotropin stimulation before RAI remnant ablation/
therapy or scanning has been a long-established standard of
Preclinical studies show that the presence of the BRAFV600E
care because early observational research suggested that a
mutation significantly reduces sodium-iodide symporter
TSH >30 mIU/L was required for incompletely resected
expression and RAI uptake (688). There are currently in-
thyroid tumors to significantly concentrate 131I (689). There
sufficient clinical data, however, to know whether the pres-
have been two RCTs comparing various thyroid hormone
ence or absence of the BRAFV600E mutation or other genetic
withdrawal protocols prior to therapeutic or diagnostic iodine
alterations in PTC may impact the success of adjuvant
radioisotope administration (690,691). Lee et al. (691) re-
therapy or remnant ablation in PTC, or if adjustments in
ported on an open-label, single-center study, in which 291
administered activity are warranted for any planned treat-
patients with well-differentiated thyroid cancer (TNM stage
ments. In a recent subgroup analysis of 134 PTC patients
T1–T3, N0/N1a,M0) were randomized to either (a) with-
with T1aN0M0 disease, the rate of macroscopic structural
drawal LT4 for 4 weeks (n = 89), (b) withdrawal of LT4 for 4
disease recurrence was 0% in the no RAI group (24% of
weeks with substitution of LT3 for the first 2 weeks (n = 133),
whom were BRAF positive), 2.6% in 39 BRAF-positive pa-
or (c) recombinant human TSH (rhTSH; with withdrawal of
tients who received RAI, and 1.7% in BRAF-negative pa-
LT4 for a few days from the time of the first rhTSH injection
tients who received RAI (mean follow-up of 5.3 years for the
to radioisotope administration) (n = 69) (691). In this trial, all
entire study) (565). Of the 97 T1aN0M0 patients who re-
patients received 30 mCi of 131I for remnant ablation and
ceived postoperative RAI, the rate of biochemical persis-
were prescribed a 2-week low-iodine diet (LID) pre-ablation.
tence of disease (defined by a stimulated Tg of >1 ng/mL),
Although the randomization method was unclear, the base-
was 13% in the 39 BRAF-positive patients and 1.7% in the
line characteristics (including pre-ablation urinary iodine
BRAF-negative patients; the standard activity for remnant
measurements) were well balanced among groups. Further-
ablation in this study was 30 mCi in most cases (565). The
more, the pre-ablation TSH was >30 in all patients in all
relatively small number of patients who did not receive
groups in this trial, with no significant difference in mean pre-
postoperative RAI and the relatively small number of
ablation TSH levels. Moreover, the primary outcome, which
structural disease recurrences in the T1aN0M0 subgroup of
was the rate of successful remnant ablation at 12 months, was
PTC patients and lack of randomization in this study may
not significantly different among groups (range 91.0%–
preclude meaningful analysis of RAI therapeutic efficacy.
91.7% among groups). Upon administration of question-
The ESTIMABL2 study will analyze the relevance of BRAF
naires in a double-blind fashion, there was no significant
status on outcome (registration number NCT01837745).
difference in quality of life during preparation for RAI ab-
There are no studies examining therapeutic efficacy of RAI
lation, between the LT4 withdrawal group and the LT4
in ATA high-risk patients, but the presence or absence of a
withdrawal with LT3 substitution group; however, quality of
BRAFV600E mutation in that situation would be unlikely to
life in both withdrawal groups prior to remnant ablation was
alter RAI decision-making at present. Thus, the role of mo-
significantly worse than after rhTSH preparation (691).
lecular testing in guiding postoperative RAI use has yet to be
Long-term outcome data from this trial were not reported. In
established, and more research in this area is clearly needed.
a single-center trial, Leboeuf et al. (690) randomized 20 in-
Moreover, in general, RCTs examining RAI therapeutic ef-
dividuals with well-differentiated thyroid cancer awaiting
ficacy are needed, and ideally these should be appropriately
RAI remnant ablation or diagnostic scanning to LT4 with-
stratified for ATA recurrence risk level and other important
drawal and either (a) substitution of LT3 (50 lg/d, divided as
prognostic variables.
two capsules) for 21 days, followed by 2 weeks off LT3, or
(b) identical-appearing placebo for LT3 (two pills per day) for
21 days. In both groups, either the LT3 or placebo was with-
[B38] How long does thyroid hormone need to be
drawn for another 2 weeks, and weekly measurements were
withdrawn in preparation for RAI remnant ablation/
performed for serum TSH, free thyroxine, and free triiodothy-
treatment or diagnostic scanning?
ronine (690). The primary outcome was the hypothyroidism
symptom score (Billewicz scale), which was ascertained in a
&
RECOMMENDATION 53
double-blind fashion at time of LT4 withdrawal and every 2
(A) If thyroid hormone withdrawal is planned prior to RAI
weeks until the end of the study. The randomization method was
therapy or diagnostic testing, LT4 should be withdrawn for
a computer-generated number sequence; the LT3 group was
3–4 weeks. Liothyronine (LT3) may be substituted for LT4
significantly older than the placebo group (mean age 64 com-
in the initial weeks if LT4 is withdrawn for 4 or more
pared to 46), suggesting imbalance in the randomization (690).
weeks, and in such circumstances, LT3 should be with-
Disease stage of participants was not reported. Approximately
drawn for at least 2 weeks. Serum TSH should be measured
15% of participants withdrew from this trial (two in the placebo
prior to radioisotope administration to evaluate the degree
group and one in the LT3 group). Leboeuf et al. (690) reported
of TSH elevation.
no significant differences between the two thyroid hormone
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
59
withdrawal protocol groups for hypothyroid symptom scores at
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
any time point in the trial in a protocol-based analysis. At the
(C) In patients with ATA high-risk DTC with attendant
time of ablation or whole-body scanning, the mean TSH was not
higher risks of disease-related mortality and morbidity,
significantly different between groups. In summary, available
more controlled data from long-term outcome studies are
evidence from recent RCTs suggests that either direct LT4
needed before rhTSH preparation for RAI adjuvant treat-
withdrawal or LT4 withdrawal with substitution of LT3 in initial
ment can be recommended.
weeks is associated with similar short-term quality of life and
hypothyroidism symptom scores; moreover, the remnant abla-
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
tion success rate appears comparable.
(D) In patients with DTC of any risk level with signifi-
There is some conflicting observational evidence on whether
cant comorbidity that may preclude thyroid hormone
any specific pre-RAI administration TSH level is associated
withdrawal prior to iodine RAI administration, rhTSH
with success of remnant ablation (692–696). For example, in a
preparation should be considered. Significant comorbidity
secondary analysis of a RAI remnant ablation activity RCT,
may include (a) a significant medical or psychiatric con-
Fallahi et al. (692) reported that a pre-RAI TSH of >25 fol-
dition that could be acutely exacerbated with hypothy-
lowing (LT4 and LT3) thyroid hormone withdrawal was sig-
roidism, leading to a serious adverse event, or (b) inability
nificantly associated with increased likelihood of successful
to mount an adequate endogenous TSH response with
remnant ablation (odds ratio 2.36, [95% CI 1.28–4.35],
thyroid hormone withdrawal.
p = 0.006), after adjustment for RAI activity, baseline serum
Tg, on-LT4 TSH level, sex, age, histology, baseline RAI up-
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
take, and extent of surgery). In two retrospective studies, each
Recombinant human thyrotropin (trade name Thyrogen) is
including several hundred DTC patients who underwent thy-
currently approved by many international authorities including
roid hormone withdrawal, no significant association was ob-
the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and
served between pre-RAI TSH and rate of successful remnant
Health Canada for use in preparation for RAI remnant ablation
ablation, in respective multivariate analyses adjusted for rele-
in patients who have undergone a near-total or total thyroid-
vant variables such as disease extent, 131I activity, and sex
ectomy for well-differentiated thyroid cancer and who do not
(695,696). However, results of these two studies may not
have evidence of distant metastases (FDA, www.accessdata.
necessarily be extrapolated to TSH levels below 30 mU/L, gi-
fda.gov; Health Canada, http://webprod.hc-sc.gc.ca). Data
ven that patients with such TSH thresholds were not generally
from a compassionate use observational study suggest that
considered eligible for RAI ablation in these studies. Pre–RAI
rhTSH raises serum TSH measurements in patients who are
ablation TSH was not a significant predictor of becoming dis-
unable to mount an endogenous TSH rise and appears to re-
ease free without further treatment in a secondary subgroup
duce the risk of hypothyroid-related complications in patients
analysis of 50 patients who underwent thyroid hormone with-
with significant medical or psychiatric comorbidity (697).
drawal, but the small number of patients in this subgroup may
Some of the complications that were reported to be avoided
have limited the statistical power for a multivariate analysis
by use of rhTSH included worsening of psychiatric illness,
(694). In summary, there is some uncertainty on the optimal
respiratory compromise, central nervous system (CNS) com-
level pre–RAI treatment TSH following thyroid hormone
promise, aggravation of congestive heart failure, and aggra-
withdrawal in considering long-term outcome effects.
vation of coronary artery disease (697).
Multiple RCTs have focused on short-term remnant abla-
[B39] Can rhTSH (Thyrogen) be used as an
tion outcomes in low and intermediate risk DTC with lower
alternative to thyroxine withdrawal for remnant
risk features, using rhTSH compared to thyroid hormone
ablation or adjuvant therapy in patients who have
withdrawal. In six RCTs of patients with well-differentiated
undergone near-total or total thyroidectomy?
thyroid cancer without distant metastases undergoing RAI
remnant ablation (T1–T3, N1 or N0, all M0), the rate of
successful remnant ablation, was not significantly different
&
RECOMMENDATION 54
after rhTSH preparation compared to thyroid hormone
(A) In patients with ATA low-risk and ATA intermediate-
withdrawal, using 131I dose activities ranging from 30 to 100
risk DTC without extensive lymph node involvement (i.e.,
mCi (691,698–702). Patients with resected cervical lymph
T1–T3, N0/Nx/N1a, M0), in whom RAI remnant ablation or
node metastases were included in five of these trials
adjuvant therapy is planned, preparation with rhTSH stimu-
(691,699–702), and these may be assumed to be confined to
lation is an acceptable alternative to thyroid hormone with-
the central neck, given the extent of primary surgery de-
drawal for achieving remnant ablation, based on evidence of
scribed in these studies. In one trial, a further inclusion re-
superior short-term quality of life, noninferiority of remnant
striction was fewer than five positive nodes at the time of the
ablation efficacy, and multiple consistent observations sug-
primary surgery (702). Some potential limitations of the ex-
gesting no significant difference in long-term outcomes.
isting RCTs in this area include lack of blinding of patients
and treating physicians (because it was not feasible). In five
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
of the RCTs that examined health-related quality of life
(B) In patients with ATA intermediate-risk DTC who have
around the time of remnant ablation, this outcome was sig-
extensive lymph node disease (multiple clinically involved
nificantly worse in patients who underwent thyroid hormone
LN) in the absence of distant metastases, preparation with
withdrawal compared to rhTSH preparation, and this was
rhTSH stimulation may be considered as an alternative to
attributed to hypothyroid symptoms (691,699–702). How-
thyroid hormone withdrawal prior to adjuvant RAI treatment.
ever, in three of these RCTs, which examined longer term
60
HAUGEN ET AL.
quality of life, there was no significant difference in mea-
the rate of NED at last follow-up was not significantly dif-
surements between patients who had received rhTSH com-
ferent in patients prepared with thyroid hormone withdrawal
pared to those who had thyroid hormone withdrawal
(26.8%) compared to those prepared with rhTSH (33.7%)
preparation, 3 or more months after RAI remnant ablation
(708). In a smaller retrospective, multicenter study, Pitoia
(699,701,702). A smaller RCT including a total of 25 indi-
et al. (710) reported that in 45 consecutive Tg antibody-
viduals who had incidentally discovered PTC in the course of
negative patients with T3-T4 /N1-Nx/M0 disease, the ab-
thyroidectomy for multinodular goiter, showed that mean Tg
sence of persistence or recurrence of disease after a mean
measurements were similar at various time points out to
follow-up of about 3 years was 72% in patients pretreated
about 20 months in 13 individuals who were prepared for
with rhTSH and 59% in those pretreated with thyroid hor-
remnant ablation using rhTSH within a week after thyroid-
mone withdrawal ( p = 0.03). In a multicenter retrospec-
ectomy, compared to those prepared by LT4 withdrawal for
tive analysis of patients with T4 disease with or without
4–6 weeks postoperatively (703). A meta-analysis pooling
nodal or distant metastases (T4, N0/N1, M0/M1), the rate of
data from 1535 patients in all seven trials described herein,
stimulated Tg <2 ng/mL Tg among antibody-negative pa-
suggested that the rates of remnant ablation success were not
tients was 67.7% (42 of 62) in patients prepared for RAI
significantly different using rhTSH compared to thyroid
treatment with rhTSH, compared to 57.8% (37 of 64) in those
hormone withdrawal (risk ratio 0.97 [95% CI 0.94–1.01])
prepared with thyroid hormone withdrawal (6-month follow-
(704). Furthermore, a pooled analysis suggested that quality-
up) (711). In a retrospective analysis of 175 patients with
of-life measures were superior on the day of remnant ablation
RAI-avid metastatic disease to lungs and/or bone, the authors
in the rhTSH group, with no significant difference between
observed no significant difference in overall survival after a
groups 3 months later (704). Another meta-analysis including
mean follow-up period of 5.5 years, among patients prepared
six of the previously mentioned RCTs, also suggested that the
prior to RAI treatment with rhTSH alone for all RAI treat-
success of remnant ablation was not significantly different
ments, thyroid hormone withdrawal for all RAI treatments, or
between patients prepared with rhTSH or thyroid hormone
thyroid hormone withdrawal for initial treatments followed
withdrawal, and this result was robust using a variety of
by rhTSH for subsequent treatment(s) (712). In this study,
definitions of remnant ablation success (705). In summary,
whole-body and blood dosimetry studies were performed in
the use of rhTSH for preparation for remnant ablation is as-
all patients; therefore, the results may not be extrapolated to
sociated with superior short-term quality of life and similar
RAI fixed dosing. Some important differences among groups
rates of successful remnant ablation compared to traditional
in this study that could have impacted the findings included
thyroid hormone withdrawal.
differences in cumulative RAI activities received and longer
There are some limited long-term outcome data following
follow-up in groups who had thyroid hormone withdrawal
rhTSH preparation for RAI treatment compared to thyroid
(712). Although the authors performed a multivariable analysis
hormone withdrawal. In one aforementioned RCT in ATA
examining for predictors of overall survival, and method of
low- and intermediate-risk patients (700), follow-up data
TSH stimulation was not significant, this model did not adjust
were reported at a median of 3.7 years later for 51 of the
for these variables. In a two-center retrospective analysis
original 63 patients, and rates of reoperation for cervical neck
comparing responses to treatment using RECIST 1.1 criteria in
recurrence were essentially identical between groups (4% of
56 patients with distant metastatic disease pretreated with ei-
patients), with no deaths (706). In the same study, repeat
ther rhTSH or thyroid hormone withdrawal prior to RAI, there
treatment with 131I for detectable Tg or imaging evidence of
were no differences in outcomes between groups after a mean
disease was performed in 4 of the 28 patients in the rhTSH
follow-up period of about 6 years (713). Also in this study,
group and 5 of the 23 patients in the hypothyroid group in this
there were important baseline differences among groups, such
study (706). The low number of thyroid cancer–related
as rates of use of dosimetry and mean cumulative RAI activity.
deaths and recurrences in this small trial limit the ability to
Rates of xerostomia, leukopenia, or thrombocytopenia were
make meaningful statistical comparisons of long-term out-
not significantly different between treatment groups in this
comes. In another RCT including 44 mixed risk–level DTC
study. The overall mortality rate was 20% in the rhTSH group
patients, who were subjected to either rhTSH preparation
(3 of 15) and 7.3% in the thyroid hormone withdrawal group (3
(n = 24) for RAI treatment within a week after surgery or 4–6
of 41) ( p = 0.188) (713), although the study was likely not
weeks of LT4 withdrawal (n = 20), after a mean follow-up
sufficiently large to examine differences in this important
period of about 52 months, only one individual in the rhTSH
outcome. The findings of the latter study cannot be readily
group was histologically proven to have recurrent disease
extrapolated to fixed-dosing RAI treatment regimens because
(lymph nodes and bone) (707). However, this study was
80% of the individuals in the rhTSH group and 46% in the
likely underpowered to detect meaningful differences in this
thyroid hormone withdrawal group had dosimetry-based RAI
outcome, and the final data analysis would be limited by lack
treatment. RCTs comparing rhTSH to thyroid hormone with-
of data available at the final follow-up (i.e., in progress) for
drawal preparation pre–RAI treatment, are clearly needed to
18% of the trial participants (707). In one prospective (694)
guide clinical care in higher risk DTC patients.
and two retrospective (708,709) observational studies in-
cluding largely ATA low- and intermediate-risk DTC pa-
[B40] What activity of 131I should be used
tients, no significant difference was observed in the long-term
for remnant ablation or adjuvant therapy?
presence of clinically significant disease, regardless of whe-
&
RECOMMENDATION 55
ther rhTSH or thyroid hormone withdrawal was used in
preparing for therapeutic RAI for DTC patients). In a sub-
(A) If RAI remnant ablation is performed after total
group analysis of 183 DTC patients with level N1b nodal
thyroidectomy for ATA low-risk thyroid cancer or
disease from one of the aforementioned retrospective studies,
intermediate-risk disease with lower risk features (i.e., low-
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
61
volume central neck nodal metastases with no other known
compared to 60 mCi or 100 mCi in one study comprising
gross residual disease or any other adverse features), a low
pooled long-term outcome data from two staged smaller trials
administered activity of approximately of 30 mCi is gener-
from the same group (717).
ally favored over higher administered activities.
The rate of successful remnant ablation was reported to
be not inferior using an administered activity of 30 mCi as
(Strong recommendation, High-quality evidence)
compared to 100 mCi in three trials after preparation with
(B) Higher administered activities may need to be con-
thyroid hormone withdrawal (699,701,714) and in two trials
sidered for patients receiving less than a total or near-total
after preparation with rhTSH (699,701), including data from
thyroidectomy in which a larger remnant is suspected or in
the two large factorial design trials in both comparisons
which adjuvant therapy is intended.
(699,701). Pilli et al. (715) reported that an administered
activity of 50 mCi was not inferior to 100 mCi in achieving
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
successful remnant ablation, following preparation with
rhTSH. In contrast, Zaman et al. (716) suggested that 100
&
RECOMMENDATION 56
mCi may be superior to 50 mCi following thyroid hormone
When RAI is intended for initial adjuvant therapy to treat
withdrawal, but the small size (40 patients) and lack of re-
suspected microscopic residual disease, administered ac-
porting of statistical comparisons are important limitations
tivities above those used for remnant ablation up to 150 mCi
of this study. The third largest trial (341 patients random-
are generally recommended (in absence of known distant
ized) by Fallahi et al. (692) reported that an administered
metastases). It is uncertain whether routine use of higher
activity of 100 mCi was superior to 30 mCi in achieving
administered activities (>150 mCi) in this setting will re-
successful remnant ablation after thyroid hormone with-
duce structural disease recurrence for T3 and N1 disease.
drawal. The rate of initial successful remnant ablation (as
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
defined by the primary authors) was highly variable among
trials, and the following rates were reported following initial
Successful remnant ablation can be defined by an undetect-
administration of 100 mCi of 131I: 64% in the trial from
able stimulated serum Tg, in the absence of interfering Tg an-
Fallahi et al. (692), 56% in the trial from Maenpaa et al.
tibodies, with or without confirmatory nuclear or other imaging
(714), 89% in the trial from Mallick et al. (699), 67% in the
studies. An alternative definition in cases in which Tg antibodies
trial from Pilli et al. (715), 94% in the trial from Schlum-
are present is the absence of visible RAI uptake on a subsequent
berger et al. (701), and 60% in the trial from Zaman et al.
diagnostic RAI scan. In this section, we only included published
(716). The reasons explaining variability in the rates of
original RCTs or systematic reviews/meta-analyses of such
successful RAI remnant ablation among trials are not
studies examining the impact of various 131I dose activities on
completely understood but could potentially be due to dif-
the rate of successful remnant ablation or thyroid cancer out-
ferences in study populations, completeness of surgery
comes (including thyroid cancer–related deaths or recurrences)
(including size of the remaining remnant), or sensitivity of
in adult patients with well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma who
techniques used to evaluate outcomes (such as Tg assays or
had been treated with total or near-total thyroidectomy and who
diagnostic imaging studies).
were not known to have any gross residual disease following
Short-term side effects in the weeks following remnant
surgery. Our search yielded six RCTs (692,699,701,714–716),
ablation have been reported to be more frequent in patients
the majority of which had had no blinding of patients and health
treated with 100 mCi as compared to 30 mCi activities by
care providers (699,701,714–717).
Mallick et al. (699), and a similar trend was reported by
In the trial by Fallahi et al. (692), the randomization pro-
Maenpaa et al. (714). Repeat treatment with additional 131I
gram was prepared and executed by a technologist in the
has been reported to be more frequent in patients treated with
laboratory where the 131I activities were prepared for dis-
30 mCi as compared to higher activities in three trials
pensing in coded vials, without revealing the administered
(692,699,717), but not in one trial (714). Long-term outcome
activity to participants and health care providers. The path-
data from randomized trials in this area are limited by rela-
ologic stage of disease of patients included was TNM stage
tively low event rates, potentially underpowering statistical
pT1 to pT3 in four trials (699,714,715,717), whereas only
analyses. Kukulska et al. (717) followed 390 patients that had
pT1 or pT2 patients were eligible in one trial (701), and
been randomized to either 30, 60, or 100 mCi administered
primary tumor size or tumor size staging was not reported in
activities for remnant ablation, and reported the following event
two trials (692,716). Some patients with known small-
rates after a median period of 10 years following treatment:
volume lymph node disease were included in five of the trials
local relapse in 2% following an initial 30 mCi activity com-
(699,701,714,715,717), but patients with known lymph node
pared to 3% for initial administered activities of 60 or 100 mCi
disease were excluded from one trial (692), and lymph node
(reported to be not significantly different), and distant meta-
staging was not reported in another trial (716). Although the
static recurrence in 0% of the patients in all of the treatment
specific levels and size of lymph node metastases at baseline
groups. Maenpaa et al. (714) followed 160 patients who were
were not clearly reported, data reported on surgical extent
randomized to either 30 or 100 mCi for a median of 51 months,
suggested that these were consistent with relatively nonbulky
and they reported the following outcomes: reoperation for re-
central neck nodal metastases resected in the course of thy-
section of thyroid cancer in lymph nodes in 7% and 8% of
roidectomy with or without central neck dissection (699,701,
patients who were treated with activities of 30 and 100 mCi,
714,715,717).
respectively; distant metastatic recurrence in 0% and 4% of
The 131I activities compared were as follows: 30 mCi
patients treated with activities of 30 and 100 mCi, respectively;
compared to 100 mCi in four trials (692,699,701,714), 50
and no thyroid cancer–related deaths in any of the treatment
mCi compared to 100 mCi in two trials (715,716), or 30 mCi
groups.
62
HAUGEN ET AL.
Overall, the rate of successful remnant ablation in patients
including 176 DTC patients with a primary tumor size £2 cm
who have undergone total or near-total thyroidectomy ap-
in diameter and microscopic extrathyroidal extension, no
pears to be not inferior in patients treated with 30 mCi
significant differences were found in a comparison of rates of
compared to 100 mCi in the majority of studies comparing
successful remnant ablation and long-term recurrences in
these activities and particularly in studies achieving the
patients treated with 30 mCi 131I compared with 149 mCi
highest successful ablation rates. Rates of short-term adverse
(724). In this study, no recurrences were noted in either group
effects may be higher after administration of 100 mCi 131I
after a median follow-up of 7.2 years. Although the mean
compared to 30 mCi, in a small number of trials examining
primary tumor size was higher in the group treated with
these outcomes. Limited long-term RCT data on the impact
higher activities compared with the lower activity group
of various activities for remnant ablation or adjuvant therapy
in this study ( p < 0.001), the difference in mean tumor di-
are available, but thyroid cancer–related recurrences or
ameter was only 2 mm, so it may be of questionable clinical
deaths do not appear to be higher with the use of lower initial
significance (724). Kruijff et al. (725) reported the results of
activities for remnant ablation, compared to higher admin-
multiple secondary subgroup analyses on data from 341 pa-
istered activities. Four recent systematic reviews and meta-
tients with T3 PTC, in which a postsurgical 131I administered
analyses reported results that are supportive of these con-
activity of £75 mCi was compared to >75 mCi. In this study,
clusions (718–721), although some of the predefined study
the respective rates of disease recurrence, mortality, and
inclusion criteria in these reviews were generally not as strict
stimulated Tg >2 ng/mL were not significantly different in
as defined in our review (particularly for variables such as the
the lower administered activity group (i.e., 7%, 3%, 72%),
extent of primary surgery or the stringency of Tg threshold in
compared to the higher activity group (12%, 1.7%, 64%)
the definition of success of remnant ablation); it is also im-
(respective p-values of 0.55, 0.43, 0.40). Furthermore, in this
portant to note that in some of these meta-analyses, statisti-
study, a multivariate analysis using data from 1171 mixed-
cally significant heterogeneity (variability) of treatment
risk DTC patients without distant metastases suggested that
effect was noted for the pooled analyses on successful rem-
there was no significant difference in risk of disease recur-
nant ablation (718,720,721). A recent retrospective database
rence with the use of >75 mCi of 131I postoperatively com-
analysis by Verburg et al. (722) with longer follow-up than
pared to £75 mCi (higher administered activity hazard ratio
most earlier studies adds a note of caution for the use of lower
1.57 ([95% CI 0.61–3.98], p = 0.341), after adjustment for
administered activities in older low-risk patients. They fol-
age, sex, primary tumor size, presence of vascular invasion,
lowed 698 patients with low-risk DTC (pT1 or pT2 and no
multifocality, and lymph node positivity, with a mean follow-
involved LN) for at least 5 years. There were no long-term
up period of 60 months) (725). In another study comparing
(10–15 year) overall survival or disease-specific survival
rates of disease structural recurrence/persistence in 181 pa-
differences in younger patients (<45 years old) who received
tients with positive N1b lymph nodes, Sabra et al. (726) re-
lower administered activities of 131I (£54 mCi) compared
ported no statistically significant difference between the
with those receiving higher administered activities. The
following approximate fixed administered activity cate-
older patients (‡45 years old), however, who received lower
gories: 75–139 mCi with a median of 102 mCi (31%), 140–
administered activities of 131I (£54 mCi) did have a lower
169 mCi with a median of 150 mCi (32%), and 170–468 mCi
disease-specific survival compared with those receiving
with a median of 202 mCi (23%) ( p = 0.17). Consistent with
higher administered activities. Disease was defined as ab-
this finding, no significant correlation between RAI activity
normal structural or functional imaging or a detectable serum
and best clinical response was observed in this study. In re-
Tg after TSH stimulation. The absolute disease-specific
spective secondary subgroup analyses, a dose response was
survival remained high even in the patients receiving lower
apparent in individuals ‡45 years of age, but not younger
administered activities of 131I, and there were no differences
individuals, and the authors cautioned about the use of fixed
in overall survival in these older patients.
RAI activities exceeding 150 mCi because of concerns about
In 2009, the ATA guidelines task force recommended a
potential toxicity in the context of renal impairment (726). In
fixed administered activity of between 100 and 200 mCi for
the three studies utilizing either thyroid hormone withdrawal
adjuvant RAI treatment if residual microscopic disease is
or rhTSH for RAI treatment preparation (723,725,726), in-
suspected) or if an aggressive histologic variant of DTC
sufficient data were reported to make any meaningful inter-
was present (25). Since that time, at least five retrospective,
pretation on any relationship between administered activity
single institution studies have compared clinical outcomes
in the context of preparation method. In one study, RAI ad-
following various adjuvant RAI fixed activities in ATA
juvant treatment was performed postoperatively, presumably
intermediate-risk and ATA higher risk patients, without
without initiation of thyroid hormone because rhTSH was not
distant metastases (723–726). In comparing rates of disease
reported to be used (724). None of the aforementioned studies
persistence or recurrence in 225 ATA intermediate-risk DTC
(723–726) reported on RAI toxicity or quality of life out-
patients treated with 30 to 50 mCi compared to ‡100 mCi of
comes; furthermore, T4 disease was not included in these
adjuvant RAI, Castagna et al. (723) reported no significant
studies. Overall, there is little evidence to suggest that in-
difference in rates of successful remnant ablation or in long-
creasing administered activities of adjuvant RAI is neces-
term disease persistence/recurrence between groups. How-
sarily associated with improvement of clinical outcomes for
ever, there were some statistically significant differences
patients with ATA intermediate- and high-risk disease
between the treatment groups that may have influenced these
without evidence of persistent disease. There is an important
results, including higher numbers of men and individuals
unmet need for RCTs examining thyroid cancer–related
with lateral neck nodal disease and a longer follow-up period
outcomes, quality of life, and toxicities in patients with ATA
(which may increase the rate of detection) in the higher ad-
intermediate or higher level thyroid cancer, in the absence of
ministered activity group of this study (723). In another study
gross residual disease or distant metastases.
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
63
[B41] Is a low-iodine diet necessary before
websites: ATA (www.thyroid.org/faq-low-iodine-diet/),
remnant ablation?
ThyCa: Thyroid Cancer Survivors’ Association, Inc. (http://
thyca.org/rai.htm#diet), Light of Life Foundation (www
&
RECOMMENDATION 57
.checkyourneck.com/About-Thyroid-Cancer/Low-Iodine-
A low iodine diet (LID) for approximately 1–2 weeks
Cookbook), and Thyroid Cancer Canada (www.thyroid
should be considered for patients undergoing RAI remnant
cancercanada.org/userfiles/files/LID_English_Aug_2013_
ablation or treatment.
final.pdf).
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
It is important for health care providers to inquire about a
[B42] Should a posttherapy scan be performed
history of possible high-dose iodine exposure (e.g., IV con-
following remnant ablation or adjuvant therapy?
trast, amiodarone, or others) in considering timing of
&
RECOMMENDATION 58
scheduling RAI therapy or imaging. There are no studies
A posttherapy WBS (with or without SPECT/CT) is rec-
examining whether the use of a LID in preparation for RAI
ommended after RAI remnant ablation or treatment, to
remnant ablation or treatment impacts long-term disease-
inform disease staging and document the RAI avidity of
related recurrence or mortality rates. In a recent systematic
any structural disease.
review of observational studies in this area, the most com-
monly studied LIDs allowed for £50 lg/d of iodine for 1–2
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
weeks and that the use of LIDs appeared to be associated with
reduction in urinary iodine excretion as well as increase in
The literature on the utility of posttherapy RAI scans
131I uptake, compared to no LID (727). There is conflicting
is largely based on single-center retrospective studies
evidence on the impact of a LID on the outcome of remnant
(643,733–736), many of which included a relatively large
ablation success (727), with the best available evidence lar-
proportion of ATA intermediate- and high-risk DTC patients
gely restricted to retrospective analyses, using historical
(643,733,734). In a comparison of the results of pretherapy
controls (728,729). In a study including a total of 120 pa-
131I scans to posttherapy scans, the rate of newly discovered
tients, the use of a 4-day LID (with seafood restriction for 1
lesions on posttherapy scans was reported to be between 6%
week) was associated with a higher rate of remnant ablation
and 13%. In a study examining post–remnant ablation scans
success (defined by absent neck activity and stimulated Tg
in 60 DTC patients, the disease stage was altered in 8.3% of
<2 ng/mL) compared to no LID (728). In a study including a
individuals (735). In older literature, it had been reported that
total of 94 patients, comparing a more stringent LID to a less
posttherapy scanning demonstrated new findings in 31% of
stringent diet of restricted salt/vitamins/seafood, each for 10
39 cases studied, but the detection of thyroid foci was in-
to 14 days, there was no significant difference in rate of
cluded in that outcome, whereas almost a third of the patients
successful remnant ablation, using a visually negative 131I
(12 of 39) had a sizeable portion of their thyroid remaining
scan to define that outcome (729). The optimal stringency and
following primary surgery (736). In the recent posttherapy
duration of LID (if any) prior to therapeutic RAI is not
scan literature, the 131I activities ranged from 30 to 300 mCi
known. In a RCT including 46 patients, the increase in 131I
(733–735), and the timing of scans was between 2 and 12
uptake and reduction in urinary iodine excretion was not
days following therapeutic RAI (643,733–735,737,738), with
significantly different between patients who followed a LID
some studies prescribing a preparatory LID (643,735,738)
for 2 weeks compared to 3 weeks prior to RAI scanning
and others not prescribing such a diet (733,734). In one study,
(730), suggesting that there may be little reason to extend the
posttherapy scan images were compared on the third and
LID past 2 weeks. However, a lack of association between
seventh day following ablative or therapeutic RAI adminis-
urinary iodine excretion and rate of successful thyroid abla-
tration for mixed-risk DTC (following thyroid hormone
tion has been reported in patients not specifically prescribed a
withdrawal) (738). The authors of this study reported that the
LID (731); the absence of a specific LID comparison group in
concordance of lesions detected on both scans was 80.5%
this study may limit the generalizability of the findings to
(108 of 135 patients), with 7.5% of early scans providing
situations in which a specific LID is prescribed. Such findings
more information than late scans, and 12% of late scans
may suggest, however, that the routine measurement of uri-
providing more information than early scans (738). A limi-
nary iodine excretion, outside of possibly a research setting
tation in interpreting the posttherapy scan literature is that all
or suspected iodine contamination, may not be necessary.
of the lesions identified on posttherapy scans were not always
Although LIDs may be cumbersome or unpalatable, serious
confirmed to represent structural disease (i.e., using cross-
side effects are relatively infrequent (727), with case re-
sectional imaging, histopathology, or long-term outcome
ports of potentially life-threatening hyponatremia occur-
data), and readers of posttherapy scans were generally not
ring largely in elderly patients who were subject to thyroid
specifically blinded to the results of other investigations, such
hormone withdrawal, often in the presence of metastatic
as pretherapy RAI scans.
disease, sometimes concurrently treated with thiazide di-
The potential utility of the combination of RAI post-
uretics, and with a LID duration of longer than a week in the
therapy scanning in conjunction with SPECT/CT has been
majority of cases (732). It is important to avoid restriction
examined in multiple prospective (737,739,740) and retro-
of noniodized salt during the LID, since this may be asso-
spective studies (741–743). The majority of these studies
ciated with hyponatremia, especially in patients undergo-
(737,739–742) have independently confirmed the presence
ing thyroid hormone withdrawal. Some examples of LID
of disease by means such as alternative imaging studies,
descriptions for patients, may be found at the following
histopathology, or clinical follow-up. In a single-center
64
HAUGEN ET AL.
study of 170 patients with mixed risk level well-
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
differentiated thyroid cancer, the combination RAI post-
(C) For low-risk patients who have undergone remnant ab-
therapy scanning and neck/thorax SPECT/CT, was esti-
lation and have undetectable serum Tg levels, TSH may be
mated to have a sensitivity of 78% [95% CI 60%–90%],
maintained at the lower end of the reference range (0.5–
with a specificity of 100% (negative or indeterminate scans
2 mU/L) while continuing surveillance for recurrence. Si-
were grouped as negative), for the outcome of persistent/
milar recommendations hold for low-risk patients who have
recurrent disease (median study follow-up period of 29
not undergone remnant ablation and have undetectable serum
months) (737). Furthermore, in a multivariate analysis re-
Tg levels.
ported in this study, posttherapy RAI scanning with SPECT/
CT significantly independently predicted an increased risk
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
of future disease persistence/recurrence (HR 65.2 [95% CI
(D) For low-risk patients who have undergone remnant
26.0–163.4) (737). In a single-center study of 81 DTC pa-
ablation and have low-level serum Tg levels, TSH may be
tients who underwent 131I posttherapy scanning in con-
maintained at or slightly below the lower limit of normal
junction with SPECT-spiral CT of the neck, 1.6% of the 61
(0.1–0.5 mU/L) while surveillance for recurrence is con-
patients with negative cervical scintigraphy–SPECT/CT had
tinued. Similar recommendations hold for low-risk pa-
evidence of abnormal cervical scintigraphy 5 months later,
tients who have not undergone remnant ablation, although
whereas 3 of the 20 patients (15%) with positive or in-
serum Tg levels may be measurably higher and continued
determinate cervical posttherapy scintigraphy–SPECT/CT,
surveillance for recurrence applies.
had abnormal cervical scintigraphy 5 months later (741).
The incremental value of SPECT/CT in impacting thera-
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
peutic planning appears to be greatest in studies in which
(E) For low-risk patients who have undergone lobectomy,
its use was reserved for situations of posttherapy scan
TSH may be maintained in the mid to lower reference
diagnostic uncertainty (impacted therapy in 24.4% [8 of
range (0.5–2 mU/L) while surveillance for recurrence is
33] of cases, all of which went on to surgery) (739), or
continued. Thyroid hormone therapy may not be needed if
when disease was advanced and WBS was inconclusive
patients can maintain their serum TSH in this target range.
(impacted management in 35% [8 of 23] of such patients
in another study) (740). The routine addition of neck/chest
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
SPECT/CT to all posttherapy scans was estimated to alter
postsurgical ATA recurrence risk estimate in 6.4% (7 of
DTC expresses the TSH receptor on the cell membrane and
109) of patients (743), impact therapeutic planning in
responds to TSH stimulation by increasing the expression of
about 2% of cases (742), and reduce the need for addi-
several thyroid specific proteins (Tg, sodium-iodide symporter)
tional cross-sectional imaging in 20% of cases (29 of
and by increasing the rates of cell growth (744). Suppression of
148). In one study examining the use of routine cervical/
TSH, using supraphysiologic doses of LT4, is used commonly to
thoracic SPECT/CT in conjunction with posttherapy
treat patients with thyroid cancer in an effort to decrease the risk
scanning, the SPECT/CT portion identified non–iodine
of recurrence (275,671,745–747). A meta-analysis supported
avid lesions in 22% of patients (32 of 148), although the
the efficacy of TSH suppression therapy in preventing major
underlying pathologic diagnosis or long-term clinical
adverse clinical events (RR = 0.73 [CI = 0.60–0.88], p < 0.05)
significance of these lesions was not clearly reported (i.e.,
(745). A large RCT from Japan (748) showed that disease-free
‘‘tiny’’ lung nodules in 19 patients, mediastinal lymph
survival was equivalent in patients with normal TSH (0.4–
nodes <5 mm in 10 patients, and osteolytic bone metas-
5 mU/L) compared with those on LT4 suppression therapy (TSH
tases in three patients) (743). In situations in which
<0.01 mU/L). Extent of residual disease is uncertain in these
SPECT/CT may not be feasible to perform in conjunction
patients in that most did not undergo total thyroidectomy or RAI
with a posttherapy RAI scan, clinical judgment needs to
ablation and Tg levels were not monitored or reported, making
prevail on the utility of alternative cross-sectional imag-
direct comparisons to a North American approach difficult.
ing studies, considering factors such as clinical-pathologic
Retrospective and prospective studies have demonstrated
stage, the completeness of surgery, inappropriate thyr-
that TSH suppression to below 0.1 mU/L may improve out-
oglobulinemia, and, if performed, the posttherapy RAI
comes in high-risk thyroid cancer patients (275,749), though no
scan result.
such evidence of benefit has been documented in low-risk pa-
tients. Higher degrees of suppression to <0.03 mU/L may offer
[B43] Early management of DTC after initial therapy
no additional benefit (746). A prospective, nonrandomized co-
hort study (671) of 2936 patients found that overall survival
[B44] What is the appropriate degree of initial
improved significantly when the TSH was suppressed to un-
TSH suppression?
detectable levels in patients with NTCTCSG stage III or IV
disease and suppressed to the subnormal to undetectable range
&
RECOMMENDATION 59
in patients with NTCTCSG stage II disease; however, in the
(A) For high-risk thyroid cancer patients, initial TSH
latter group there was no incremental benefit from suppressing
suppression to below 0.1 mU/L is recommended.
TSH to undetectable levels. Patients in the NTCTCSG stage II
classification are somewhat different from AJCC/UICC stage II
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
patients. Suppression of TSH was not beneficial in patients with
(B) For intermediate-risk thyroid cancer patients, initial
NTCTCSG stage I disease. In another study, there was a positive
TSH suppression to 0.1– 0.5 mU/L is recommended.
association between serum TSH levels and the risk for recurrent
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
65
disease and cancer-related mortality (750). Adverse effects of
versus the risks of EBRT must be carefully weighed to arrive at
TSH suppression may include the known consequences of
optimal decisions for individual patients. The approach to pa-
subclinical thyrotoxicosis, including exacerbation of angina
tients with gross incomplete surgical resection of disease is
in patients with ischemic heart disease, increased risk for atrial
addressed in another section (Recommendation 72).
fibrillation in older patients (751), and increased risk of osteo-
porosis in postmenopausal women (748,752–754). Therefore,
[B47] Systemic adjuvant therapy
optimal TSH goals for individual patients must balance the
potential benefit of TSH suppression with the possible harm
&
RECOMMENDATION 61
from subclinical thyrotoxicosis especially in patients with
There is no role for routine systemic adjuvant therapy in
medical conditions that can be exacerbated with aggressive
patients with DTC (beyond RAI and/or TSH suppressive
TSH suppression.
therapy using LT4).
There is little evidence to guide TSH targets or the use of
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
thyroid hormone in ATA low-risk patients who have undergone
lobectomy. Most of the studies evaluating lobectomy for these
There are no clinical trial data to indicate that any adjuvant
patients do not discuss TSH targets or the use of thyroid hor-
therapy beyond RAI and/or TSH suppressive therapy using
mone therapy or note that these data were unavailable in the
LT
databases studied (318,323–327). Vaisman et al. (328) noted
4 has a net beneficial role in DTC patients. Furthermore, as
the prognosis of DTC patients in complete remission and
that ‘‘levothyroxine was often not given after lobectomy if the
without any indication of active systemic disease is very
patient maintained thyroid function tests within the reference
good—and as toxicities, and even the risk of death, from use
range,’’ while Matsuzu et al. (322) noted that ‘‘TSH suppression
of kinase inhibitor therapies are appreciable—toxicities/risks
therapy was performed in most of the cases postoperatively, but
have strong potential to exceed expected therapeutic benefit
the patients’ TSH levels were not analyzed in this study.’’ A
in the adjuvant context in most patients with DTC.
recent study by Ebina et al. (755) retrospectively analyzed low-
Whether populations of DTC patients might be identifiable
risk patients who had undergone lobectomy and had not re-
who have sufficiently great future risks from recurrent dis-
ceived thyroid hormone therapy. After a mean follow-up of 8.3
ease to justify the corresponding risks attendant to the ap-
years, only 13% of the 674 patients undergoing lobectomy be-
plication of adjuvant systemic therapy (beyond RAI and/or
came overtly hypothyroid. The 10-year cause-specific and
TSH suppressive therapy using LT
disease-specific survivals were not different between the pa-
4) remains uncertain.
Doxorubicin may act as a radiation sensitizer in some tumors
tients who underwent thyroidectomy versus a lesser operation,
of thyroid origin (760) and could be considered for patients
although it was common for the patients undergoing lobectomy
with locally advanced disease undergoing external beam ra-
to also receive an ipsilateral central neck dissection. More re-
diation therapy. It is unproven whether patients with rising Tg
search is needed in this area to help guide management of those
in the setting of no identifiable progression of anatomical
patients undergoing lobectomy for low-risk DTC.
disease have sufficiently high future risks from disease to
justify the application of adjuvant systemic therapy beyond
[B45] Is there a role for adjunctive external beam
RAI and/or TSH suppressive therapy using LT4.
radiation therapy or chemotherapy?
[B46] External beam radiation therapy
[C1] DTC: LONG-TERM MANAGEMENT AND ADVANCED
CANCER MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES
&
RECOMMENDATION 60
[C2] What are the appropriate features of long-term
There is no role for routine adjuvant EBRT to the neck in
management?
patients with DTC after initial complete surgical removal
of the tumor.
Accurate surveillance for possible recurrence in patients
thought to be free of disease is a major goal of long-term
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
follow-up. Tests with high specificity allow identification of
The application of adjuvant neck/thyroid bed/loco-regional
patients unlikely to experience disease recurrence, so that less
radiation therapy in DTC patients remains controversial. In
aggressive management strategies can be used that may be
particular, the use of radiation therapy within the context of
more cost effective and safe. Similarly, patients with a higher
initial/primary surgery/thyroidectomy has no meaningful liter-
risk of recurrence are monitored more aggressively because it
ature support. There are reports of responses among patients
is believed that early detection of recurrent disease offers the
with locally advanced disease (756,757) and improved relapse-
best opportunity for effective treatment. A large study (761)
free and cause-specific survival in patients over age 60 with
found that the residual life span in disease-free patients treated
extrathyroidal extension but no gross residual disease (758),
with total or near-total thyroidectomy, 131I for remnant abla-
and selective use can be considered in these patients. It remains
tion, and in some cases high-dose 131I for residual disease was
unknown whether external beam radiation therapy might re-
similar to that in the general Dutch population. In contrast, the
duce the risk for recurrence in the neck following adequate
life expectancy for patients with persistent disease was re-
primary surgery and/or RAI treatment in patients with ag-
duced to 60% of that in the general population but varied
gressive histologic subtypes (759). However, in the context of
widely depending upon tumor features. Age was not a factor
certain individual patients undergoing multiple and frequent
in disease-specific mortality in a comparison of patients with
serial neck re-operations for palliation of loco-regionally re-
age-matched individuals in the Dutch population. Treatment
current disease, adjuvant EBRT may be considered. In such
thus appears safe and does not shorten life expectancy. Al-
contexts, the risks of anticipated additional serial re-operations
though an increased incidence of second tumors in thyroid
66
HAUGEN ET AL.
cancer patients has been recognized after the administration of
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
high cumulative activities of 131I (762,763), this elevated risk
(E) ATA high-risk patients (regardless of response to
was not found to be associated with the use of 131I in another
therapy) and all patients with biochemical incomplete,
study (764). RAI therapy in low-risk patients did not affect
structural incomplete, or indeterminate response should
median overall survival in one study (765), but did increase
continue to have Tg measured at least every 6–12 months
second primary malignancies in another study (766). This risk
for several years.
of second primary malignancies after RAI therapy is dis-
cussed in more detail in section C33. Patients with persistent
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
or recurrent disease are offered treatment to cure or to delay
future morbidity or mortality. In the absence of such options,
&
RECOMMENDATION 63
therapies to palliate by substantially reducing tumor burden or
preventing tumor growth are utilized, with special attention
(A) In ATA low-risk and intermediate-risk patients who
paid to tumors threatening critical structures.
have had remnant ablation or adjuvant therapy and nega-
A second goal of long-term follow-up is to monitor thy-
tive cervical US, serum Tg should be measured at 6–18
roxine suppression or replacement therapy to avoid under-
months on thyroxine therapy with a sensitive Tg assay
replacement or overly aggressive therapy (767).
(<0.2 ng/mL) or after TSH stimulation to verify absence of
disease (excellent response).
[C3] What are the criteria for absence of persistent
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
tumor (excellent response)?
(B) Repeat TSH-stimulated Tg testing is not recommended
In patients who have undergone total or near-total thy-
for low- and intermediate-risk patients with an excellent
roidectomy and RAI treatment (remnant ablation, adjuvant
response to therapy.
therapy or therapy), disease-free status comprises all of the
following (summarized in Table 13):
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
1. No clinical evidence of tumor
(C) Subsequent TSH-stimulated Tg testing may be con-
2. No imaging evidence of tumor by RAI imaging (no
sidered in patients with an indeterminate, biochemical
uptake outside the thyroid bed on the initial posttreat-
incomplete, or structural incomplete response following
ment WBS if performed, or if uptake outside the thyroid
either additional therapies or a spontaneous decline in Tg
bed had been present, no imaging evidence of tumor on
values on thyroid hormone therapy over time in order to
a recent diagnostic or posttherapy WBS) and/or neck US
reassess response to therapy.
3. Low serum Tg levels during TSH suppression (Tg
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
<0.2 ng/mL) or after stimulation (Tg <1 ng/mL) in the
absence of interfering antibodies
Subsequent stimulated testing is rarely needed for those
[C4] What are the appropriate methods
with NED, because there are rarely benefits seen in this pa-
for following patients after initial therapy?
tient population from repeated TSH-stimulated Tg testing
(590,594,597,768). The use of sensitive methods for serum
[C5] What is the role of serum Tg measurement
Tg may obviate the need for rhTSH stimulation in low-risk
in the follow-up of DTC?
patients with a Tg on LT4 treatment below 0.1–0.2 ng/mL
(393,587,595,601,606,769).
&
RECOMMENDATION 62
[C6] Serum Tg measurement and clinical utility
(A) Serum Tg should be measured by an assay that is
Measurement of serum Tg levels is an important modality
calibrated against the CRM457 standard. Thyroglobulin
to monitor patients for residual or recurrent disease. Most
antibodies should be quantitatively assessed with every
laboratories currently use immunometric assays to measure
measurement of serum Tg. Ideally, serum Tg and anti-Tg
serum Tg, and it is important that these assays are calibrated
antibodies should be assessed longitudinally in the same
against the CRM-457 international standard. Despite im-
laboratory and using the same assay for a given patient.
provements in standardization of Tg assays, there is still a
two-fold difference between some assays (316,770), leading
(Strong recommendation, High-quality evidence)
to the recommendation that measurements in individual pa-
(B) During initial follow-up, serum Tg on thyroxine therapy
tients be performed with the same assay over time. Im-
should be measured every 6–12 months. More frequent Tg
munometric assays are prone to interference from anti-Tg
measurements may be appropriate for ATA high-risk patients.
autoantibodies, which commonly cause falsely low serum Tg
measurements. Moreover, variability in Tg autoantibody as-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
says may result in falsely negative antibody levels associated
(C) In ATA low- and intermediate-risk patients that achieve
with a misleadingly undetectable serum Tg due to the anti-
an excellent response to therapy, the utility of subsequent Tg
bodies that are present but not detected (771). Assays for anti-
testing is not established. The time interval between serum Tg
Tg autoantibodies suffer from a similar variance and lack of
measurements can be lengthened to at least 12–24 months.
concordance as do Tg assays (608,772), and both Tg and Tg
autoantibody assays may be affected by heterophilic anti-
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
bodies (773,774). The presence of Tg autoantibodies should
(D) Serum TSH should be measured at least every 12
be suspected when the surgical pathology indicates the pres-
months in all patients on thyroid hormone therapy.
ence of background Hashimoto thyroiditis (775). While there
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
67
is no method that reliably eliminates Tg antibody interfer-
ever, a Tg assay with a functional sensitivity of 0.1–0.2 ng/
ence, radioimmunoassays for Tg may be less prone to anti-
mL may reduce the need to perform TSH-stimulated Tg
body interference, which can occasionally result in falsely
measurements during the initial and long-term follow-up of
elevated Tg levels (776–778). However, radioimmunoassays
some patients. In one study using such an assay, a T4-
for Tg are not as widely available, may be less sensitive than
suppressed serum Tg <0.1 ng/mL was only rarely (2%) as-
immunometric assays in detecting small amounts of residual
sociated with an rhTSH-stimulated Tg >2 ng/mL; however,
tumor, and their role in the clinical care of patients is un-
42% of the patients had baseline rhTSH-stimulated Tg ele-
certain. In the absence of antibody interference, serum Tg has
vation >0.1 ng/mL, but only one patient was found to have
a high degree of sensitivity and specificity to detect thyroid
residual tumor (606). In another study using the same assay
cancer, especially after total thyroidectomy and remnant
(787), a TSH-suppressed serum Tg level was >0.1 ng/mL in
ablation. In patients with low risk for recurrence, serum Tg
14% of patients, but the false-positive rate was 35% using an
measurement at the time of remnant ablation/adjuvant ther-
rhTSH-stimulated Tg cutoff of >2 ng/mL, raising the possi-
apy may be useful for prediction of subsequent disease-free
bility of unnecessary testing and treatment. In low-risk pa-
status (605).
tients not undergoing ablation, an ultrasensitive Tg was
Most data come from studies using methods with a func-
<1 ng/mL in 91% and <2 ng/mL in 96% of patients at 9
tional sensitivity of 1 ng/mL. Functional sensitivity of many
months after thyroidectomy (644). In a second-generation
contemporary assays is £0.1 ng/mL, which may lead to
assay, a cutoff of 0.15 ng/mL was shown to have a NPV of
greater reliance of Tg on thyroid hormone therapy instead of
98.6% and 91% specificity for residual disease or poten-
performing Tg determination following TSH stimulation.
tial recurrence (587). The only prospective study also docu-
Because TSH stimulation generally increases basal serum Tg
mented increased sensitivity of detection of disease at the
by 5- to 10-fold, significant serum Tg levels (>1–2 ng/mL)
expense of reduced specificity (770), and receiver operating
found after TSH stimulation when using an assay with a
curves have shown that a Tg level on thyroid hormone
functional sensitivity of 0.5–1 ng/mL may already be pre-
therapy around 0.2–0.3 ng/mL portends the best sensitivity
dicted in patients on LT4 treatment without TSH stimulation
and specificity for detecting persistent disease. With the use
by a highly sensitive Tg assay when Tg levels are above
of these sensitive Tg assays, it was concluded that an annual
0.2 ng/mL.
serum Tg on LT4 treatment with periodic neck US is adequate
The highest degrees of sensitivity for serum Tg are noted
for detection of recurrence without need for rhTSH stimu-
following thyroid hormone withdrawal or stimulation us-
lation testing in those patients with a serum Tg <0.2–0.3 ng/
ing rhTSH (779). Serum Tg measurements obtained during
mL on thyroid hormone therapy (606). In patients at low to
thyroid hormone suppression of TSH and less commonly
intermediate risk of recurrence, the utility of an undetectable
following TSH stimulation may fail to identify patients
postoperative nonstimulated Tg level is uncertain and may
with relatively small amounts of residual tumor (583,649,
depend upon the functional sensitivity of the Tg assay, with
780,781). These minimal amounts of residual disease are
some studies (632,646) observing RAI-avid metastatic foci
often located in the neck, and performing neck US in these
(usually in neck lymph nodes) in 8.5%–12% of such patients,
patients offers the best opportunity to recognize or exclude
while another study (630) noted negative scans in 63 of 63
neoplastic disease even when serum Tg is undetectable
patients when the baseline Tg was <0.2 ng/mL. The different
(297,782,783). Conversely, even TSH-stimulated Tg mea-
results likely relate to both the degree of intermediate versus
surement may fail to identify patients with clinically signif-
higher risk patients in the respective cohorts, the amount of
icant tumor because of anti-Tg antibodies or less commonly
residual thyroid tissue, the elapsed time since surgery, the
because of defective or absent production and secretion of
cutoff for functional sensitivity of the Tg assays, as well as
immunoreactive Tg by tumor cells (649,780). Tg levels
the sensitivity of the post-RAI imaging techniques.
should be interpreted in light of the pretest probability of
Approximately 20% of patients who are clinically free of
clinically significant residual tumor. An aggressive or poorly
disease with serum Tg levels <1 ng/mL during thyroid hor-
differentiated tumor may be present despite low basal or
mone suppression of TSH (785) will have a serum Tg level
stimulated Tg; in contrast, a minimally elevated stimulated
>2 ng/mL after rhTSH or thyroid hormone withdrawal at 12
Tg may occur in patients at low risk for clinically significant
months after initial therapy with surgery and RAI. In this
morbidity (784). Nevertheless, a single rhTSH-stimulated
patient population, one-third will have identification of per-
serum Tg <0.5–1.0 ng/mL in the absence of anti-Tg
sistent or recurrent disease and of increasing Tg levels, and
antibody has an approximately 98%–99.5% likelihood of
the other two-thirds will remain free of clinical disease and
identifying patients completely free of tumor on follow-up
will have stable or decreasing stimulated serum Tg lev-
(590,591,593,597,768). Repeating rhTSH-stimulated Tg
els over time (618,624). However, there may be a low like-
measurements may not be necessary in most cases when
lihood of a rise in serum Tg to >2 ng/mL when the basal
surveillance includes an undetectable basal serum Tg and
serum Tg is <0.1 ng/mL if a second-generation Tg im-
negative ultrasonography (604,617). However, 0.5%–3% of
munochemiluminometric assay (ICMA) with a functional
patients may manifest clinical or biochemical recurrence in
sensitivity of 0.05 ng/mL is employed (788). There is good
spite of an initial rhTSH-stimulated Tg of <0.5 ng/mL (592).
evidence that a Tg cutoff level above 2 ng/mL following
Initial follow-up for low-risk patients (about 85% of
rhTSH stimulation is highly sensitive in identifying patients
postoperative patients) who have undergone total or near-
with persistent tumor (785,789–794). However, the results of
total thyroidectomy and 131I remnant ablation should be
serum Tg measurements made on the same serum specimen
based mainly on TSH-suppressed Tg and cervical US, fol-
differ among assay methods (316). Therefore, the Tg cutoff
lowed by TSH-stimulated serum Tg measurements if the
may differ significantly among medical centers and labora-
TSH-suppressed Tg testing is undetectable (583,785). How-
tories. Further, the clinical significance of minimally
68
HAUGEN ET AL.
detectable Tg levels is unclear, especially if only detected
[C8] What is the role of serum Tg measurement
following TSH stimulation. However, receiver operating
in patients who have not undergone RAI
curves have shown that a Tg level on thyroid hormone around
remnant ablation?
0.2–0.3 ng/mL portends the best sensitivity and specificity for
detecting persistent disease. In these patients, the trend in se-
&
RECOMMENDATION 64
rum Tg over time will typically identify patients with clinically
Periodic serum Tg measurements on thyroid hormone
significant residual disease. A rising unstimulated or stimu-
therapy should be considered during follow-up of patients
lated serum Tg indicates disease that is likely to become
with DTC who have undergone less than total thyroidec-
clinically apparent (618,795). Thyroglobulin doubling time
tomy and in patients who have had a total thyroidectomy
may have utility as a predictor of recurrence, analogous to the
but not RAI ablation. While specific cutoff levels of Tg
use of calcitonin doubling time for MTC (622,796).
that optimally distinguish normal residual thyroid tissue
from persistent thyroid cancer are unknown, rising Tg
[C7] Anti-Tg antibodies
values over time are suspicious for growing thyroid tissue
The presence of anti-Tg antibodies, which occur in ap-
or cancer.
proximately 25% of thyroid cancer patients (797) and 10% of
the general population (798), will falsely lower serum Tg
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
determinations in immunometric assays (799). The use of
recovery assays in this setting to detect significant interfer-
In low- and intermediate-risk patients who underwent a
ence is controversial (799,800). Serum anti-Tg antibody
total thyroidectomy without remnant ablation or adjuvant
should be measured in conjunction with serum Tg assay by an
therapy, the same strategy of follow-up is used, based on
immunometric method. Although assay standardization
serum Tg determination on LT4 treatment and on neck US at
against the International Reference Preparation 65/93 has
9–12 months. In most of these patients, neck US does not
been recommended (608), wide-ranging variability in assay
reveal any suspicious findings and the serum Tg is <1 ng/mL
results and analytical sensitivity of the assay remains
on LT4 treatment, is low (<2 ng/mL) and will remain at a low
(801,802). Use of recovery methods for anti-Tg antibody may
level, or will decrease without any additional therapy over
suffer variable interferences (608). Anti-Tg antibody may
time (545). There is no need for rhTSH stimulation because
rise transiently postoperatively as an apparent immune re-
Tg will increase to a value above 1 ng/mL in 50% of the
action to the surgery itself and may also rise after ablation
cases, even in individuals without residual cancer, with the
therapy (611). Anti-Tg antibodies should be measured in a
magnitude of increase being related to the size of normal
different assay if the routine anti-Tg antibody assay is neg-
thyroid remnants (783). These patients are followed on an
ative in a patient with surgically proven Hashimoto thy-
annual basis with serum TSH and Tg determination.
roiditis (775). It may be useful to measure anti-Tg antibodies
In the few patients with a serum Tg that remains elevated
shortly after thyroidectomy and prior to ablation because
over time, especially for those with a rising Tg, remnant ab-
high levels may herald the likelihood of recurrence in patients
lation or adjuvant therapy with 131I may be considered with a
without Hashimoto thyroiditis (801). Similarly, recurrent or
posttherapy WBS if neck US is negative. There is no evidence
progressive disease is suggested in those patients initially
in these low-risk patients that a delayed treatment over the
positive for anti-Tg antibodies who then become negative but
postoperative treatment may adversely affect the outcome.
subsequently have rising levels of anti-Tg antibodies. Falling
A cohort of 80 consecutive patients with very low-risk
levels of anti-Tg antibodies may indicate successful therapy
PTMC who had undergone near-total thyroidectomy without
(614,801). Thus, serial serum anti-Tg antibody quantification
postoperative RAI treatment were studied over 5 years (783).
using the same methodology may serve as an imprecise
The rhTSH-stimulated serum Tg levels were £1 ng/mL in 45
surrogate marker of residual normal thyroid tissue, Ha-
patients (56%) and >1 ng/mL in 35 (44%) patients in whom
shimoto thyroiditis, or tumor (608,609,615). Following total
rhTSH-stimulated Tg levels were as high as 25 ng/mL. The
thyroidectomy and RAI remnant ablation, anti-Tg antibodies
diagnostic WBS revealed uptake in the thyroid bed but
usually disappear over a median of about 3 years in patients
showed no pathological uptake in any patient, and thyroid bed
without evidence of persistent disease (611,615,616). Several
uptake correlated with the rhTSH-stimulated serum Tg levels
studies demonstrate an increased risk of recurrence/persistent
( p < 0.0001). Neck ultrasonography identified lymph node
disease associated either with a new appearance of anti-Tg
metastases in both Tg-positive and Tg-negative patients. The
antibodies or rising titers (609–614). From a clinical per-
authors concluded that for follow-up of this group of patients:
spective, anti-Tg antibody levels that are declining over time
(i) diagnostic WBS was ineffective at detecting metastases;
are considered a good prognostic sign, while rising antibody
(ii) neck ultrasonography as the main surveillance tool was
levels, in the absence of an acute injury to the thyroid (release
highly sensitive in detecting lymph node metastases; and (iii)
of antigen by surgery or RAI treatment), significantly in-
detectable rhTSH-stimulated serum Tg levels mainly de-
creases the risk that the patient will subsequently be diag-
pended upon the size of thyroid remnants, which suggests that
nosed with persistent or recurrent thyroid cancer.
serum Tg determination should be performed primarily on
The recent development of liquid chromatography-tandem
thyroid hormone therapy when using a sensitive Tg assay
mass spectrometry assay of Tg holds promise for accurate Tg
(functional sensitivity £0.2 ng/mL). In a series of 290 low-risk
measurement in the presence of Tg autoantibodies (803–
patients who had not undergone remnant ablation (545), se-
805), but further studies will be required to validate the assays
rum Tg levels on LT4 became undetectable (<1 ng/mL) within
in terms of functional sensitivity, correlations with immu-
5–7 years in 95% of the cohort and was <0.1 ng/mL in 80% of
noassay results, and patient outcomes, reflecting either ex-
a subset of these patients, using a sensitive assay to confirm
cellent response or persistent disease (806).
the utility of Tg measurements on thyroid hormone treatment
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
69
for routine follow-up. The frequency of follow-up is uncertain
shape, a hypoechoic appearance or the loss of the hyperechoic
in patients who have not received RAI ablation and have
hilum by themselves does not justify a FNA biopsy (FNAB).
sufficient residual thyroid tissue to produce measurable levels
Interpretation of neck US should take into account all other
of serum Tg, the magnitude of which will depend upon the
clinical and biological data. In fact, the risk of recurrence is
mass of residual tissue and the degree of TSH suppression. It
closely related to the initial lymph node status: most lymph
appears reasonable to consider periodic measurements of Tg
node recurrences occur in already involved compartments;
as surveillance for a trend in rising values.
the risk increases with a higher number of N1 and a higher
number of N1 with extracapsular extension (338) and with
[C9] What is the role of US and other imaging
macroscopic rather than microscopic lymph node metastases
techniques (RAI SPECT/CT, CT, MRI, PET-CT)
(335,809).
during follow-up?
In low- and intermediate-risk patients, the risk of lymph node
recurrence is low (<2%) in patients with undetectable serum Tg
[C10] Cervical ultrasonography
and is much higher in those with detectable/elevated serum Tg.
In fact, 1 g of neoplastic thyroid tissue will increase the serum
&
RECOMMENDATION 65
Tg by *1 ng/mL during LT4 treatment and by approximately
(A) Following surgery, cervical US to evaluate the thyroid
2–10 ng/mL following TSH stimulation (788,800). Neck US
bed and central and lateral cervical nodal compartments
can detect N1 as small as 2–3 mm in diameter (in patients in
should be performed at 6–12 months and then periodically,
whom serum Tg may be low or undetectable), but benefits of
depending on the patient’s risk for recurrent disease and Tg
their early discovery (<8–10 mm) is not demonstrated.
status.
FNAB for cytology and Tg measurement in the aspirate fluid
is performed for suspicious lymph nodes ‡8–10 mm in their
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
smallest diameter. US guidance may improve the results of
(B) If a positive result would change management, ultra-
FNAB, in particular for small lymph nodes and those located
sonographically suspicious lymph nodes ‡8–10 mm (see
deep in the neck. However, FNAB cytology misses thyroid
Recommendation 71) in the smallest diameter should be
cancer in a significant proportion (up to 20%) of patients. The
biopsied for cytology with Tg measurement in the needle
combination of cytology and serum Tg determination in the
washout fluid.
aspirate fluid increases sensitivity (303,810,811). In cases of
lymph node metastases, the Tg concentration in the aspirate fluid
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
is often elevated (>10 ng/mL), and concentrations above this
(C) Suspicious lymph nodes less than 8–10 mm in smallest
level are highly suspicious (296,298,301). A Tg concentration in
diameter may be followed without biopsy with consider-
the aspirate fluid between 1 and 10 ng/mL is moderately suspi-
ation for FNA or intervention if there is growth or if the
cious for malignancy, and comparison of the Tg measurement in
node threatens vital structures.
the aspirate fluid and the serum should be considered in these
patients. Also, up to half of the FNAB performed for suspicious
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
US findings are benign, demonstrating that selection of patients
(D) Low-risk patients who have had remnant ablation,
for FNAB needs to be improved (296,298,812). Nonsuspicious
negative cervical US, and a low serum Tg on thyroid
and small nodes (<8–10 mm in the smallest diameter) can be
hormone therapy in a sensitive assay (<0.2 ng/mL) or after
monitored with neck US.
TSH stimulation (Tg <1 ng/mL) can be followed primarily
with clinical examination and Tg measurements on thyroid
[C11] Diagnostic whole-body RAI scans
hormone replacement.
&
RECOMMENDATION 66
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
After the first posttreatment WBS performed following
Cervical ultrasonography is performed with a high-
RAI remnant ablation or adjuvant therapy, low-risk and
frequency probe (‡10 MHz) and is highly sensitive in the
intermediate-risk patients (lower risk features) with an
detection of cervical metastases in patients with DTC
undetectable Tg on thyroid hormone with negative anti-
(290,783,807). These studies primarily evaluate patients with
Tg antibodies and a negative US (excellent response to ther-
PTC, and the utility of neck US for monitoring patients with
apy) do not require routine diagnostic WBS during follow-up.
low-risk FTC is not well-established. Neck US should in-
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
terrogate all lymph node compartments and the thyroid bed.
Frequently, US does not distinguish thyroid bed recurrences
&
RECOMMENDATION 67
from benign nodules (629,808). When an abnormality is
found during the year after surgery in patients without any
(A) Diagnostic WBS, either following thyroid hormone
other suspicious findings, including low serum Tg on thyroid
withdrawal or rhTSH, 6–12 months after adjuvant RAI
hormone therapy, follow-up may be performed with neck US.
therapy can be useful in the follow-up of patients with high
A correlation performed between US findings and pathology
or intermediate risk (higher risk features) of persistent
at surgery (292) has shown for lymph nodes >7 mm in the
disease (see risk stratification system, section [B19]) and
smallest diameter that a cystic appearance or hyperechoic
should be done with 123I or low activity 131I.
punctuations in a context of thyroid cancer should be considered
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
as malignant; lymph nodes with a hyperechoic hilum are re-
assuring; the type of vascularization (central: reassuring; pe-
B) SPECT/CT RAI imaging is preferred over planar im-
ripheral: concerning) has a high sensitivity/specificity; a round
aging in patients with uptake on planar imaging to better
70
HAUGEN ET AL.
anatomically localize the RAI uptake and distinguish be-
The sensitivity of 124I-PET for the detection of residual
tween likely tumors and nonspecific uptake
thyroid tissue and/or metastatic DTC was reported to be
higher than that of a diagnostic 131I planar WBS (99% vs.
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
66%) (819–821). Iodine 124 PET/CT has not yet been
compared with 131I SPECT/CT in a large series of patients
Following RAI ablation or adjuvant therapy, when the
with DTC. Furthermore, 124I is not yet widely available for
posttherapy scan does not reveal uptake outside the thyroid bed,
clinical use and is primarily a research tool at this time.
subsequent diagnostic WBSs have low sensitivity and are usu-
ally not necessary in low-risk patients who are clinically free of
[C12] 18FDG-PET scanning
residual tumor and have an undetectable serum Tg level on
thyroid hormone and negative cervical US (583,785,813,814).
&
RECOMMENDATION 68
A diagnostic WBS may be indicated in three primary
(A) 18FDG-PET scanning should be considered in high-
clinical settings: (i) patients with abnormal uptake outside the
risk DTC patients with elevated serum Tg (generally
thyroid bed on posttherapy WBS, (ii) patients with poorly
>10 ng/mL) with negative RAI imaging
informative postablation WBS because of large thyroid
remnants with high uptake of 131I (>2% of the administered
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
activity at the time of WBS) that may hamper the visuali-
(B) 18FDG-PET scanning may also be considered as (i) a
zation of lower uptake in neck lymph nodes, and (iii) patients
part of initial staging in poorly differentiated thyroid
with Tg antibodies, at risk of false-negative Tg measurement,
cancers and invasive Hu¨rthle cell carcinomas, especially
even when neck US does not show any suspicious findings.
those with other evidence of disease on imaging or because
Iodine 123 is preferred over 131I in these rare indications for
of elevated serum Tg levels, (ii) a prognostic tool in pa-
diagnostic WBS, because it delivers lower radiation doses to
tients with metastatic disease to identify lesions and pa-
the body and provides better quality images.
tients at highest risk for rapid disease progression and
Iodine 131 or 123I whole-body scintigraphy includes planar
disease-specific mortality, and (iii) an evaluation of post-
images or images using a dual-head SPECT gamma camera of
treatment response following systemic or local therapy of
the whole body and spot images of the neck, mediastinum, and
metastatic or locally invasive disease.
on any abnormal focus of RAI uptake. It may be performed
after the administration of either a diagnostic (usually 2–5 mCi)
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
or a therapeutic activity (30–150 mCi) of RAI. Because of the
lack of anatomical landmarks on planar images, it is often
18FDG-PET/CT is primarily considered in high-risk DTC
difficult to differentiate uptake in normal thyroid remnants
patients with elevated serum Tg (generally >10 ng/mL) with
from lymph node metastases (especially when thyroid rem-
negative RAI imaging. In a meta-analysis of 25 studies that
nants are large), uptake in lung metastases from rib lesions, or
included 789 patients, the sensitivity of 18FDG-PET/CT was
accumulation of RAI in intestine or bladder from a pelvic bone
83% (ranging from 50% to 100%) and the specificity was
lesion. Hybrid cameras combine a dual-head SPECT gamma
84% (ranging from 42% to 100%) in non–131I-avid DTC
camera with a CT scanner in one gantry. This allows direct
(822). Factors influencing 18FDG-PET/CT sensitivity in-
superimposition of functional and anatomical imaging. The
cluded tumor dedifferentiation, larger tumor burden, and to a
radiation dose delivered to the patient by the low-dose CT scan
lesser extent, TSH stimulation.
is 2–5 mSv, a dose that is much lower than the dose delivered
18FDG-PET is more sensitive in patients with an aggres-
by the administration of 100 mCi of 131I (around 50 mSv).
sive histological subtype, including poorly differentiated, tall
Whole-body SPECT/CT performed after the administra-
cell, and Hu¨rthle cell thyroid cancer. 18FDG uptake on PET in
tion of a diagnostic or a therapeutic activity (30 mCi or more)
metastatic DTC patients is a major negative predictive factor
of RAI is associated with (i) an increased number of patients
for response to RAI treatment and an independent prognostic
with a diagnosis of metastatic lymph node and (ii) a de-
factor for survival (823,824). It can also identify lesions
creased frequency of equivocal findings (739,743,815–818).
with high 18FDG uptake (standardized uptake value) that may
Furthermore, the CT portion of the SPECT/CT provides ad-
be more aggressive and should be targeted for therapy or close
ditional information on non–iodine-avid lesions; SPECT-CT
monitoring. It is complementary to 131I WBS, even in the
changed tumor risk classifications in 25% of the patients
presence of detectable 131I uptake in metastases, because 18FDG
according to the International Union Against Cancer classi-
uptake may be present in neoplastic foci with no 131I uptake.
fication and in 6% of the patients according to the ATA risk of
In patients with a TSH-stimulated Tg £10 ng/mL, the
recurrence classification; the SPECT-CT changed treatment
sensitivity of 18FDG is low, ranging from <10% to 30%. It is
management in 24 to 35% of patients, by decreasing the rate
therefore recommended to consider 18FDG-PET only in DTC
of equivocal findings. Finally, SPECT-CT avoids the need for
patients with a stimulated Tg level ‡10 ng/mL. Of course, this
further cross-sectional imaging studies such as contrast CT or
level needs to be adapted and lowered in case of aggressive
MRI. Neoplastic lesions with low uptake of RAI or without
pathological variant of thyroid cancer that may produce low
any uptake may be a cause of false negative SPECT-CT.
amounts of serum Tg. Furthermore, in patients with unde-
Iodine 124 emits positrons, allowing PET/CT imaging in DTC
tectable Tg levels but with persistent Tg antibodies the level
patients. It is used as a dosimetric and also as a diagnostic tool
of serum Tg cannot be reliably assessed and 18FDG-PET may
to localize disease. In fact, for each neoplastic focus 124I PET/CT
localize disease in some of these patients.
permits an accurate measurement of its volume as well as the
The sensitivity of 18FDG-PET scanning may be slightly in-
uptake and half-life of 124I in it, therefore allowing a reliable
creased with TSH stimulation. A multicentric prospective study
individual dosimetric assessment for each neoplastic focus.
on 63 patients showed an increase in the number of lesions
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
71
detected on the 18FDG-PET/CT performed after rhTSH
In patients with elevated or rising Tg or anti-Tg antibodies
stimulation compared to the 18FDG-PET/CT performed on
and NED on neck US or RAI imaging (if performed), CT
thyroid hormone treatment and without TSH stimulation
imaging of the neck and chest should be considered. The
(825). However, the sensitivity for detecting patients with at
frequency of positive anatomic imaging increases with higher
least one tumor site was not improved by the rhTSH stim-
serum Tg levels above 10 ng/mL. CT is the most frequently
ulation. In this study, the lesions found only by rhTSH-PET
recommended first-line technique to search for lymph node
contributed adequately to an altered therapeutic plan in four
metastases in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the
patients (6%), and the clinical benefit of identifying these
head and neck, and an injection of contrast medium is man-
additional small foci remains to be proven. Its clinical
datory for the analysis of the neck and mediastinum (826).
benefit might be higher in patients with normal neck and
Radioiodine can be administered 4–8 weeks following the
chest CT scan and normal neck ultrasonography. A meta-
injection of contrast medium, because at that time a majority
analysis on seven studies including the previous study and
of the iodine contamination has disappeared in most patients
comprising 168 patients confirmed these results and showed
(315). If there is a concern, a random urine iodine (and cre-
that 18FDG-PET/CT performed following TSH stimulation
atinine) prior to initiation of a LID and RAI testing or treat-
altered clinical management in only 9% of patients. Fur-
ment can be measured to make sure the urine iodine is not
thermore, false positives can be seen with 18FDG-PET im-
high. Diagnostic CT scan may complement neck US for the
aging with or without TSH stimulation (825).
detection of macrometastases in the central compartment, in
Results of 18FDG-PET/CT might alter the indications for
the mediastinum, and behind the trachea (307–309), and it is
131I treatment or the decision for surgical removal of small
the most sensitive tool for the detection of micrometastases in
tumor foci with 18FDG uptake. The frequency of false-
the lungs. Before revision surgery is contemplated, pre-
positive lesions varies among series from 0% to 39%, and this
sumptive recurrent neck targets must be defined by high-
high number justifies a FNAB with cytology and Tg mea-
resolution radiographic anatomic studies such as US or spiral
surement in the aspirate fluid in cases in which surgery is
axial CT scan to complement 18FDG-PET/CT or RAI im-
planned, based on 18FDG-PET results. The higher sensitivity
aging and must be carefully defined to allow for adequate
of neck ultrasonography for the detection of small metastatic
preoperative mapping and definitive surgical localization.
lymph nodes should be noted, with 18FDG-PET being more
In addition to nodal assessment axial scanning, including
sensitive for some locations such as the retropharyngeal or
CT scan with contrast has utility in the evaluation of locally
the retro-clavicular regions (825).
recurrent invasive disease and relationships with vessels.
To date, there is no evidence that TSH stimulation im-
Such patients may present with hoarseness, vocal cord pa-
proves the prognostic value of 18FDG-PET imaging.
ralysis on laryngeal exam, progressive dysphagia or mass
fixation to surrounding structures, respiratory symptoms
[C13] CT and MRI
including stridor or hemoptysis, and lesions with rapid pro-
gression/enlargement. Such lesions are incompletely evalu-
&
RECOMMENDATION 69
ated with US alone, and axial CT scanning with contrast
medium is indicated.
(A) Cross-sectional imaging of the neck and upper chest (CT,
The use of MRI has also been advocated for imaging the
MRI) with IV contrast should be considered (i) in the setting
neck and the mediastinum. It is performed with and without
of bulky and widely distributed recurrent nodal disease where
injection of gadolinium chelate as a contrast medium and does
US may not completely delineate disease, (ii) in the assess-
not require any injection of iodine contrast medium. The
ment of possible invasive recurrent disease where potential
performance of MRI for imaging the neck and mediastinum
aerodigestive tract invasion requires complete assessment, or
has not been directly compared with CT on large numbers of
(iii) when neck US is felt to be inadequately visualizing
thyroid cancer patients (827–829). Compared to CT scan, it
possible neck nodal disease (high Tg, negative neck US).
may better delineate any involvement of the aerodigestive
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
tract (830,831). It is often used as second-line imaging tech-
nique in patients with demonstrated or suspicious lesions on
(B) CT imaging of the chest without IV contrast (imag-
CT scan in order to better delineate these lesions. In the lower
ing pulmonary parenchyma) or with IV contrast (to in-
part of the neck, movements of the aerodigestive axis during
clude the mediastinum) should be considered in high risk
the procedure that may last several minutes will decrease the
DTC patients with elevated serum Tg (generally >10 ng/
quality of images (414). Endoscopy of the trachea and or
mL) or rising Tg antibodies with or without negative RAI
esophagus, with or without ultrasonography, looking for ev-
imaging.
idence of intraluminal extension can also be helpful in cases of
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
suspected aerodigestive tract invasion. MRI is less sensitive
than CT scan for the detection of lung micronodules.
(C) Imaging of other organs including MRI brain, MR
Finally, whether these imaging techniques (CT and MRI)
skeletal survey, and/or CT or MRI of the abdomen should
should be performed for diagnostic purposes or whether an
be considered in high-risk DTC patients with elevated
18FDG-PET/CT scan should be performed as the first-line
serum Tg (generally >10 ng/mL) and negative neck and
imaging procedure for diagnosis is still a matter of debate. In
chest imaging who have symptoms referable to those or-
the past, CT scan with injection of contrast medium was more
gans or who are being prepared for TSH-stimulated RAI
sensitive for the detection of lymph node metastases (832),
therapy (withdrawal or rhTSH) and may be at risk for
but with modern PET/CT equipment, the CT scan of the PET/
complications of tumor swelling.
CT is as reliable as a CT scan used for radiology, and many
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
lesions can be found on 18FDG-PET/CT scanning, even if no
72
HAUGEN ET AL.
injection of contrast medium has been performed (833,834).
0.1 mU/L indefinitely in the absence of specific contrain-
Delineation between lymph node metastases or local recur-
dications.
rence and vessels or the aerodigestive axis is often not well
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
visualized on 18FDG-PET/CT in the absence of contrast in-
jection, and if necessary other imaging techniques (CT and
(B) In patients with a biochemical incomplete response to
MRI with contrast medium) may be performed especially for
therapy, the serum TSH should be maintained between 0.1
a preoperative work-up. As a result, most patients with ex-
and 0.5 mU/L, taking into account the initial ATA risk
tensive disease should be considered for 18FDG-PET/CT and
classification, Tg level, Tg trend over time, and risk of
CT imaging with contrast, and some patients will also be
TSH suppression.
considered for MRI.
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
This imaging strategy is applied in patients with elevated
serum Tg (>5–10 ng/mL) and no other evidence of disease
(C) In patients who presented with high-risk disease but
(neck and chest imaging), starting with a 18FDG-PET/CT
have an excellent (clinically and biochemically free of
(822,833). In the past an empiric treatment was used in such
disease) or indeterminate response to therapy, consider-
patients, but recent studies have shown that 18FDG-PET/CT
ation should be given to maintaining thyroid hormone
imaging is more sensitive and should be performed as the
therapy to achieve serum TSH levels of 0.1–0.5 mU/L for
first-line approach, with empiric RAI treatment being con-
up to 5 years after which the degree of TSH suppression
sidered only for those patients with no detectable 18FDG
can by reduced with continued surveillance for recurrence.
uptake (833).
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
[C14] Using ongoing risk stratification (response to thera-
(D) In patients with an excellent (clinically and bio-
py) to guide disease long-term surveillance and therapeutic
chemically free of disease) or indeterminate response to
management decisions
therapy, especially those at low risk for recurrence, the
Ongoing risk stratification allows the clinician to continue
serum TSH may be kept within the low reference range
to provide individualized management recommendations as
(0.5–2 mU/L).
the risk estimates evolve over time. While the specific details
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
of how surveillance and therapeutic strategies should be
modified over time as a function of response to therapy re-
(E) In patients who have not undergone remnant ablation
classification within each ATA risk category remains to be
or adjuvant therapy who demonstrate an excellent or in-
defined, we do endorse the following concepts (more details
determinate response to therapy with a normal neck US,
in Table 13).
and low or undetectable suppressed serum Tg, and Tg or
Excellent response: An excellent response to therapy
anti-Tg antibodies that are not rising, the serum TSH can
should lead to a decrease in the intensity and frequency of
be allowed to rise to the low reference range (0.5–2 mU/L).
follow-up and the degree of TSH suppression (this change in
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
management will be most apparent in ATA intermediate- and
high-risk patients).
A meta-analysis has suggested an association between
Biochemical incomplete response: If associated with
thyroid hormone suppression therapy and reduction of major
stable or declining serum Tg values, a biochemical incom-
adverse clinical events (745). The appropriate degree of TSH
plete response should lead to continued observation with
suppression by thyroid hormone therapy is still unknown, es-
ongoing TSH suppression in most patients. Rising Tg or anti-
pecially in high-risk patients rendered free of disease. A con-
Tg antibody values should prompt additional imaging and
stantly suppressed TSH (0.05 mU/L) was found in one study to
potentially additional therapies.
be associated with a longer relapse-free survival than when
Structural incomplete response: A structural incomplete
serum TSH levels were always 1 mU/L or greater, and the
response may lead to additional treatments or ongoing ob-
degree of TSH suppression was an independent predictor of
servation depending on multiple clinico-pathologic factors
recurrence in multivariate analysis (749). Conversely, another
including the size, location, rate of growth, RAI avidity,
18
large study found that disease stage, patient age, and 131I
FDG avidity, and specific pathology of the structural lesions.
therapy independently predicted disease progression, but the
Indeterminate response: An indeterminate response
degree of TSH suppression did not (275). A third study showed
should lead to continued observation with appropriate serial
that during LT
imaging of the nonspecific lesions and serum Tg monitoring.
4 therapy the mean Tg levels were significantly
higher when TSH levels were normal than when TSH levels
Nonspecific findings that become suspicious over time or
were suppressed (<0.5 mU/L) but only in patients with local or
rising Tg or anti-Tg antibody levels can be further evaluated
distant recurrence (835). A fourth study of 2936 patients found
with additional imaging or biopsy.
that overall survival improved significantly when the TSH was
suppressed to <0.1 mU/L in patients with NTCTCSG stage III
[C15] What is the role of TSH suppression during
or IV disease and to a range of 0.1 mU/L to about 0.5 mU/L in
thyroid hormone therapy in the long-term follow-up
patients with NTCTCSG stage II disease; however, there was
of DTC?
no incremental benefit from suppressing TSH to undetectable
levels in stage II patients, and suppression of TSH was of no
&
RECOMMENDATION 70
benefit in patients with stage I disease (671), and higher de-
(A) In patients with a structural incomplete response to
grees of suppression to TSH of <0.03 mU/L provided no ad-
therapy, the serum TSH should be maintained below
ditional benefit (746). Another study found that a serum TSH
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
73
threshold of 2 mU/L differentiated best between patients free
which is adapted from the review by Biondi and Cooper (747).
of disease and those with relapse or cancer-related mortality,
In patients at high risk of adverse effects on heart and bone by
which remained significant when age and tumor stage were
TSH suppression therapy, the benefits of TSH suppression
included in a multivariate analysis (750). A prospective study
should be weighed against the potential risks. In peri- and
showed that disease-free survival for low-risk patients without
postmenopausal women at risk for bone loss, adjunctive ther-
TSH suppression was not inferior to patients with TSH sup-
apy with calcium supplements, vitamin D, and other bone-
pression (836). No prospective studies have been performed
enhancing agents (bisphosphonates, denosumab, etc.) should
examining the risk of recurrence and death from thyroid cancer
be considered. b-Adrenergic blocking drugs may be considered
associated with varying serum TSH levels, based on the cri-
in older patients to obviate increases in left ventricular mass and
teria outlined above in [C14] for the absence of tumor at 6–12
tachycardia (838,839).
months post surgery and RAI ablation.
There are inadequate data to make a strong recommendation
A recent observational study demonstrated increased risk of
regarding the intensity and duration of TSH suppression in the
all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in DTC patients com-
biochemical incomplete response to therapy category. This
pared to a control population (837). The authors also showed
category encompasses a variety of patients with low serum Tg
that survival in the DTC patients was lower when the serum
levels (median nonstimulated Tg 3.6 ng/mL) having been
TSH was <0.02 mU/L, which is particularly relevant in patients
initially classified as ATA low risk (16%–24%), ATA inter-
with an excellent response to therapy in whom overtreatment
mediate risk (47%–64%), or ATA high risk (18%–21%)
should be avoided. An approach to balancing the risks of thy-
(539,607). Furthermore, the risk of development of structurally
roxine suppression against the risks of tumor recurrence or
identifiable disease within this cohort is not uniform but rather
progression has been presented in a recent review (747). This
is related to the ongoing behavior of residual disease as re-
review helped to define patients at low, intermediate, and high
flected by both the magnitude of the Tg elevation and to the
risk of complications from TSH suppression therapy. Table 15
rate of rise of the serum Tg or anti-Tg antibodies. Based on
provides recommendations for TSH ranges based on response
weak data and expert opinion, we recommend a goal TSH of
to thyroid cancer therapy weighed against risks of LT4 therapy,
0.1–0.5 mIU/L for the majority of patients with a biochemical
Table 15. Thyrotropin Targets for Long-Term Thyroid Hormone Therapy
74
HAUGEN ET AL.
incomplete response, recognizing that less intense TSH sup-
sician anxiety (848). However, several observational studies
pression (0.5–2.0 mIU/L) may be appropriate for ATA low-
suggest that low-volume recurrent nodal disease can be in-
risk patients with stable nonstimulated Tg values near the
dolent and can be managed through active surveillance, al-
threshold for excellent response (e.g., nonstimulated Tg values
though not all lesions in these series are documented as
in the 1–2 ng/mL range), while more intense TSH suppression
malignant (629,849). Bulky or invasive recurrent disease is
(<0.1 mIU/L) may be desired in the setting of more elevated or
best treated surgically (319,850–853).
rapidly rising Tg values.
The judgment to offer surgery for recurrent nodal disease
in the neck is made with equipoise in two opposing decision
elements: (i) the risks of revision surgery (which are typically
[C16] What is the most appropriate management
higher than primary surgery due to scarring from previous
of DTC patients with metastatic disease?
surgery (854) balanced with (ii) the fact that surgical resec-
Metastases may be discovered at the time of initial disease
tion generally represents the optimal treatment of macro-
staging or may be identified during longitudinal follow-up. If
scopic gross nodal disease over other treatment options. An
metastases are found following initial therapy, some patients
important element in this decision-making process is the
may subsequently experience a reduction in tumor burden with
availability of surgical expertise specifically in the perfor-
additional treatments that may offer a survival or palliative
mance of revision thyroid cancer nodal surgery, which is a
benefit (840–844). The preferred hierarchy of treatment for
discrete surgical skill set. The decision to treat cervical nodal
metastatic disease (in order) is surgical excision of loco-
recurrence surgically should be made with an appreciation of
regional disease in potentially curable patients, 131I therapy for
distant disease presence and progression but may be under-
RAI-responsive disease, external beam radiation therapy or
taken even in the setting of known distant metastasis for
other directed treatment modalities such as thermal ablation,
palliation of symptoms and prevention of aerodigestive tract
TSH-suppressive thyroid hormone therapy for patients with
obstruction. The decision for treatment and surgery specifi-
stable or slowly progressive asymptomatic disease, and sys-
cally is best derived through collaborative team approach
temic therapy with kinase inhibitors (preferably by use of
involving surgery, endocrinology, and importantly the pa-
FDA-approved drugs or participation in clinical trials), espe-
tient and family (855). Therefore, cytologic confirmation of
cially for patients with significantly progressive macroscopic
disease can be deferred if the findings of the FNA will not
refractory disease. Clinical trials or kinase inhibitor therapy
lead to additional evaluation or treatment. While we gener-
may be tried before external beam radiation therapy in special
ally recommend cytologic confirmation of abnormal radio-
circumstances, in part because of the morbidity of external
graphic findings prior to surgical resection, we recognize that
beam radiation and its relative lack of efficacy. However, lo-
this may not be necessary (or possible) in every case (e.g.,
calized treatments with thermal (radiofrequency or cryo-) ab-
radiographic findings with a very high likelihood of malig-
lation (845), ethanol ablation (846), or chemo-embolization
nancy, or the specific location of the lymph node makes it
(847) may be beneficial in patients with a single or a few
difficult/impossible to biopsy).
metastases and in those with metastases at high risk of local
complications; the treatments should be performed in such
[C18] Nodal size threshold
patients before the initiation of any systemic treatment. These
Surgery is considered with the recognition of clinically
modalities may control treated metastases, may avoid local
apparent, macroscopic nodal disease through radiographic
complications, and may delay initiation of systemic treatment.
analysis including US (Table 7) and/or axial (CT) scanning
Additionally, surgical therapy in selected incurable patients is
rather than through isolated Tg elevation (309,335,856).
important to prevent complications in targeted areas, such as
Given the risks of revision nodal surgery, a clearly defined
the CNS and central neck compartment. Conversely, conser-
preoperative radiographic target is mandatory. The risks of
vative intervention with TSH-suppressive thyroid hormone
surgery relate in part to the exact location of the target
therapy may be appropriate for selected patients with stable
node(s) and whether the compartment in question has been
asymptomatic local metastatic disease and most patients with
previously dissected such as recurrent central neck nodes
stable asymptomatic non-CNS distant metastatic disease.
after primary thyroidectomy. This target must be defined by
high-resolution radiographic anatomic studies such as US or
[C17] What is the optimal directed approach
spiral CT scan with contrast, as a complement to 18FDG-PET/
to patients with suspected structural
CT or RAI-SPECT/CT when performed, to allow for ade-
neck recurrence?
quate preoperative mapping and definitive surgical localiza-
tion (309,856). Ultrasound-guided FNA for cytology with Tg
&
RECOMMENDATION 71
measurement in the aspiration sample can be performed in
Therapeutic compartmental central and/or lateral neck dis-
the setting of radiographically suspicious nodal recurrence
section in a previously operated compartment, sparing unin-
keeping in mind that Tg rinsing may be positive with thyroid
volved vital structures, should be performed for patients with
bed persistent benign thyroid remnant tissue if the patient has
biopsy-proven persistent or recurrent disease for central neck
not been treated with RAI. Charcoal tattooing under US
nodes ‡8 mm and lateral neck nodes ‡10 mm in the smallest
guidance may help the surgeon to localize the lymph node to
dimension that can be localized on anatomic imaging.
be removed during surgery (344).
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
Malignant central neck nodes ‡8 mm and lateral neck
nodes ‡10 mm in the smallest dimension that have undergone
Persistent or recurrent nodal disease may result in local
FNAB and can be localized on anatomic imaging (US with or
invasion and is the source of considerable patient and phy-
without axial CT) can be considered surgical targets
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
75
(309,857–859). Short-axis nodal diameter measurement is
quired one to three treatment sessions. Minor complications
optimally employed in surgical decision-making for nodal
included brief discomfort at the PEI site, and there were no
malignancy. Smaller lesions are probably best managed with
major complications.
active surveillance (observation) with serial cross-sectional
A recent study retrospectively reviewed 25 patients who
imaging, reserving FNA and subsequent intervention for
had 37 lymph nodes ablated between the years 1994 and
documented structural disease progression. However, multi-
2012, with a relatively long follow-up of a mean of 65
ple factors in addition to size should be taken into account
months (879). All lymph nodes were successfully ablated
when considering surgical options, including proximity of
in one to five treatment sessions by lack of flow on US.
given malignant nodes to adjacent vital structures and the
Most of the lymph nodes decreased in size and 46%
functional status of the vocal cords. Patient comorbidities,
completely disappeared. Serum Tg levels were reduced in
motivation, and emotional concerns should also be taken
most patients and brought into an acceptable range
into account along with primary tumor factors (high-grade
(<2.4 ng/mL) in 82% of patients with negative anti-Tg
histology, Tg doubling time, RAI avidity, 18FDG-PET avidity,
antibodies. There were no serious or long-term complica-
and presence of molecular markers associated with aggressive
tions. Another recent study also demonstrated safety and
behavior). Through thorough patient and multidisciplinary
efficacy of PEI in 21 patients with 41 metastatic lymph
collaborative discussions, metastatic nodes >8–10 mm can be
nodes (880). These investigators treated patients with only
carefully observed in properly selected patients with serial
one session, and 24% of patients had a recurrence at the site
clinical and radiographic follow-up, with surgery being of-
of the injection.
fered if they progress during follow-up and conservative
Limitations of many of the studies included small numbers
follow-up being maintained if they are stable over time.
of patients, relatively short-term follow-up, and many pa-
tients with small lymph nodes (<5–8 mm).
[C19] Extent of nodal surgery
A general consensus from studies and reviews is that PEI
Because of the increased risk of recurrence with focal
should be considered in patients who are poor surgical can-
‘‘berry-picking’’ techniques, compartmental surgery is rec-
didates. Many patients will likely need more than one treat-
ommended (860,861). Planned compartmental dissection
ment session and lymph nodes >2 cm may be difficult to treat
should be adjusted and be more limited depending on the
with PEI. Focal PEI treatment does represent a nonsurgical
surgeon’s judgment of procedural safety as it relates to
form of berry picking. Formal neck compartmental dissection
scarring/distortion of anatomy (from prior surgery and/or
is still the first-line therapy in DTC patients with clinically
past radiation therapy) and the perception of impending
apparent or progressive lymph node metastases. When de-
complications. Typical revision lateral neck dissection in-
ciding for the optimal strategy of care for a patient’s lymph
volves levels II, III, and IV, while revision central neck dis-
node metastases, previous treatment modalities should also
section includes at least one paratracheal region with
be taken into consideration.
prelaryngeal and pretracheal subcompartments. Bilateral
central neck dissection is offered only when dictated by
[C21] Radiofrequency or laser ablation
disease distribution because of the risks of bilateral nerve
The use of radiofrequency ablation (RFA) with local anes-
injury and permanent hypoparathyroidism.
thesia in the treatment of recurrent thyroid cancer has been
Basal Tg decreases by 60%–90% after compartmental
associated with a mean volume reduction that ranges between
dissection for recurrent nodal disease in modern series, but
approximately 55% and 95% (881,882) and complete disap-
only 30%–50% of patients have unmeasurable basal Tg after
pearance of the metastatic foci in 40%–60% of the cases
such surgery, and it is difficult to predict who will respond
(845,882,883). As with alcohol ablation, multiple treatment
to surgery with Tg reduction (627,628,634,858,862–876).
sessions are often required. Complications include discomfort,
However, most series suggest surgery results in a high
pain, skin burn, and changes in the voice (884). Similar to
clearance rate of structural disease in over 80% of patients
alcohol ablation techniques, it appears that RFA may be most
(859,875).
useful in high-risk surgical patients or in patients refusing
additional surgery, rather than as a standard alternative to
[C20] Ethanol injection
surgical resection of metastatic disease (883–885). More re-
Percutaneous ethanol injection for patients with metastatic
cently, preliminary findings using US-guided laser ablation for
lymph nodes is gaining interest as a nonsurgical directed
treatment of cervical lymph node metastases have been re-
therapy for patients with recurrent DTC. Most of the studies
ported (886).
limited PEI to patients who had undergone previous neck
dissections and RAI treatment, those who had FNA-proven
[C22] Other therapeutic options
DTC in the lymph node, and those with no known distant
Empiric RAI therapy for structurally identifiable disease
metastases.
that is not RAI avid by diagnostic scanning is very unlikely to
One of the first studies examining the effectiveness of
have a significant tumoricidal effect and is therefore not
local metastatic lymph node control by PEI treated 14 pa-
generally recommended (887). Stereotactic radiotherapy
tients with 29 lymph nodes (846). Twelve of the 14 patients
(SBRT) can be successfully used to treat isolated metastatic
had good loco-regional control in this study with short-term
disease foci, but it has no role in most patients with resectable
follow-up (mean 18 months). The largest study to date
lymph node metastases. EBRT using modern techniques such
treated 63 patients with 109 metastatic lymph nodes be-
as intensity modulated radiotherapy and sterotactic radiation,
tween the years 2004 and 2009 (878). Ninety-two lymph
is considered for loco-regional recurrence that is not surgi-
nodes (84%) were successfully ablated in this retrospective
cally resectable or with extranodal extension or involvement
study with a mean follow-up of 38 months, and most re-
of soft tissues, particularly in patients with no evidence of
76
HAUGEN ET AL.
distant disease. Efficacy has been suggested only in retro-
metastatic disease, no recommendation can be made about
spective studies on limited numbers of patients (888,889).
the superiority of one method of RAI administration over
Likewise, systemic therapies (such as cytotoxic chemother-
another (empiric high activity versus blood and/or body
apy or kinase inhibitors) for loco-regional disease are con-
dosimetry versus lesional dosimetry).
sidered only after all surgical and radiation therapy options
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
have been exhausted.
(B) Empirically administered amounts of 131I exceeding 150
mCi that often potentially exceed the maximum tolerable
[C23] What is the surgical management
tissue dose should be avoided in patients over age 70 years.
of aerodigestive invasion?
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
&
RECOMMENDATION 72
When technically feasible, surgery for aerodigestive in-
Despite the apparent effectiveness of 131I therapy in many
vasive disease is recommended in combination with RAI
patients, the optimal therapeutic activity remains uncertain
and/or EBRT.
and controversial (895,899). There are three approaches to
(Strong Recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
131I therapy: empiric fixed amounts, therapy determined by
the upper limit of blood and body dosimetry (900–907), and
For tumors that invade the upper aerodigestive tract, surgery
quantitative tumor or lesional dosimetry (908,909). Dosi-
combined with additional therapy such as 131I and/or external
metric methods are often reserved for patients with distant
beam radiation therapy is generally advised (890,891). Patient
metastases or unusual situations such as renal insufficiency
outcome is related to complete resection of all gross disease
(910,911), children (912,913), the elderly, and those with
with the preservation of function, with techniques ranging
extensive pulmonary metastases (914). Comparison of out-
from shaving a tumor off the trachea or esophagus for super-
comes among these methods from published series is difficult
ficial invasion, to more aggressive techniques when the trachea
(895,897,900). No prospective randomized trial to address
is more deeply invaded (e.g., direct intraluminal invasion),
the optimal therapeutic approach has been published. One
including tracheal resection and anastomosis or laryngophar-
retrospective study concluded that patients with loco-
yngoesophagectomy (892–894). Surgical decision-making can
regional disease were more likely to respond after dosimetric
be complex and must balance oncologic surgical completeness
therapy than after empiric treatment (915). Another study
with preservation of upper aerodigestive track head and neck
demonstrated improved efficacy of administration of dosi-
function. In some circumstances such surgery represents a
metric maximal activity after failure of empiric dosage (916).
possible attempt for cure, and in other circumstances it offers
Arguments in favor of higher activities cite a positive rela-
significant regional neck palliation in patients with distant
tionship between the total 131I uptake per tumor mass and
metastasis with impending asphyxiation or significant he-
outcome (908), while others have not confirmed this rela-
moptysis (414,891).
tionship (917). In the future, the use of 123I or 131I with
modern SPECT/CT or 124I PET-based dosimetry may facil-
[C24] How should RAI therapy be considered
itate whole-body and lesional dosimetry (918–920). In cer-
for loco-regional or distant metastatic disease?
tain settings (e.g., in the patients with radiation-induced
thyroid cancer seen after the Chernobyl accident), RAI
For regional nodal metastases discovered on diagnostic
treatment may be associated with good outcomes even in
WBS, RAI may be employed in patients with low-volume
high-risk patients with metastatic disease (921).
disease or in combination with surgery, although surgery is
The efficacy of RAI therapy is related to the mean radiation
typically preferred in the presence of bulky disease or disease
dose delivered to neoplastic foci and also to the radiosensi-
amenable to surgery. Radioiodine is also used adjunctively
tivity of tumor tissue (922). The radiosensitivity is higher in
following surgery for regional nodal disease or aerodigestive
patients who are younger, with small metastases from well-
invasion if residual RAI-avid disease is present or suspected.
differentiated papillary or follicular carcinoma and with up-
Significant variation exists nationally in the United States in
take of RAI but no or low 18FDG uptake.
regard to RAI use, irrespective of the degree of disease or risk
The maximum tolerated radiation absorbed dose (MTRD),
of recurrence (895,896). However, there are no randomized,
commonly defined as 200 rads (cGy) to the blood, is poten-
controlled clinical trials demonstrating better patient out-
tially exceeded in a significant number of patients undergoing
comes after RAI therapy. One retrospective analysis indi-
empiric treatment with various amounts of 131I. In one study
cated that a delay in RAI therapy of 6 months or more was
(923) 1%–22% of patients treated with 131I according to
associated with disease progression and reduced survival
dosimetry calculations would have theoretically exceeded
(897). In one study of 45 patients with persistent serum Tg
the MTRD had they been empirically treated with 100–300
elevation after reoperation for loco-regional recurrence, ad-
mCi of 131I. Another study (924) found that an empirically
juvant RAI therapy demonstrated no benefit (898).
administered 131I activity of 200 mCi would exceed the
MTRD in 8%–15% of patients younger than age 70 and 22%–
[C25] Administered activity of 131I for loco-regional or
38% of patients aged 70 years and older. Administering 250 mCi
metastatic disease
empirically would have exceeded the MTRD in 22% of patients
younger than 70 and 50% of patients 70 and older. These esti-
&
RECOMMENDATION 73
mates imply the need for caution in administering empiric ac-
(A) Although there are theoretical advantages to dosi-
tivities higher than 100–150 mCi in certain populations such as
metric approaches to the treatment of loco-regional or
elderly patients and patients with renal insufficiency.
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
77
[C26] Use of rhTSH (Thyrogen) to prepare patients for 131I
levels of 30–50 mU/L. When thyroid hormone withdrawal
therapy for loco-regional or metastatic disease
has been employed, LT4 therapy should recommence once
the dose of RAI is administered in order to reduce the du-
&
RECOMMENDATION 74
ration of TSH elevation.
There are currently insufficient outcome data to recom-
mend rhTSH-mediated therapy for all patients with distant
[C27] Use of lithium in 131I therapy
metastatic disease being treated with 131I.
&
RECOMMENDATION 76
(No Recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
Since there are no outcome data that demonstrate a better
outcome of patients treated with lithium as an adjunct to
&
RECOMMENDATION 75
131I therapy, the data are insufficient to recommend lithium
Recombinant human TSH–mediated therapy may be indi-
therapy.
cated in selected patients with underlying comorbidities
(No recommendation, Insufficient evidence)
making iatrogenic hypothyroidism potentially risky, in pa-
tients with pituitary disease whose serum TSH cannot be
Lithium inhibits iodine release from the thyroid without
raised, or in patients in whom a delay in therapy might be
impairing iodine uptake, thus enhancing 131I retention in
deleterious. Such patients should be given the same or higher
normal thyroid and tumor cells (939). One study (940) found
activity that would have been given had they been prepared
that lithium increased the estimated 131I radiation dose in
with hypothyroidism or a dosimetrically determined activity.
metastatic tumors on average by more than 2-fold, but pri-
(Strong Recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
marily in those tumors that rapidly cleared iodine. On the
other hand, a different study was unable to document any
No randomized trial comparing thyroid hormone with-
clinical advantage of lithium therapy on outcome in patients
drawal therapy to rhTSH-mediated therapy for treatment of
with metastatic disease, despite an increase in RAI uptake in
distant metastatic disease has been reported, but there is a
tumor deposits (941). Lithium use may be associated with
growing body of nonrandomized studies exploring the use of
adverse events and needs to be precisely managed.
rhTSH to prepare patients for therapy of metastatic disease
(713,925–934). One small comparative study showed that the
[C28] How should distant metastatic disease
radiation dose to metastatic foci is lower with rhTSH than
to various organs be treated?
that following withdrawal (935). Many of these case reports
The overall approach to treatment of distant metastatic
and series report disease stabilization or improvement in
thyroid cancer is based upon the following observations and
some patients following rhTSH-mediated 131I therapy, but
oncologic principles:
whether the efficacy of this preparation is comparable to
thyroid hormone withdrawal is unknown. Extreme or pro-
1. Morbidity and mortality are increased in patients with
longed elevations of TSH from either thyroid hormone
distant metastases, but individual prognosis depends
withdrawal or rhTSH may acutely stimulate tumor growth
upon factors including histology of the primary tumor,
and mass of metastases (930,936–938). With metastatic
distribution and number of sites of metastasis (e.g., brain,
deposits in the brain or in close relation to the spinal cord or
bone, lung), tumor burden, age at diagnosis of metasta-
the superior vena cava, such swelling may severely com-
ses, and 18FDG and RAI avidity (842,933,942–948).
promise neurologic function or produce a superior vena
2. Improved survival is associated with responsiveness to
cava syndrome, respectively. When distant metastases are
directed therapy (surgery, EBRT, thermal ablation,
evident, MRI of the brain and spine is recommended to
etc.) and/or RAI (842,933,942–948).
detect the presence of critical metastases prior to treatment
3. In the absence of demonstrated survival benefit, cer-
(see sections [C28] and [C39]). When metastases are de-
tain interventions can provide significant palliation or
tected, institution of temporary high-dose corticosteroid
reduce morbidity (847,949–951).
therapy is recommended for trying to limit the risk of acute
4. Treatment of a specific metastatic area must be con-
tumor swelling and compromised function. Dexamethasone
sidered in light of the patient’s performance status and
has been employed in doses of 2–4 mg every 8 hours starting
other sites of disease; for example, 5%–20% of pa-
6–12 hours prior to rhTSH and RAI dosing or after 10–12
tients with distant metastases die from progressive
days of thyroid hormone withdrawal, with the steroids
cervical disease (948,952).
continued in a tapering dosage schedule for 1 week post
5. Longitudinal re-evaluation of patient status and con-
therapy, for 48–72 hours after rhTSH administration, or for
tinuing reassessment of potential benefit and risk of
72 hours after re-institution of thyroxine therapy when
intervention are required.
thyroid hormone withdrawal was employed (927). In pa-
6. In the setting of overall poor anticipated outcome of
tients with these critical metastases, consideration should be
patients with radiographically evident or symptomatic
given to preparation with either a reduced dose of rhTSH or
metastases that do not respond to RAI, the complexity
to attenuating the degree and duration of endogenous TSH
of multidisciplinary treatment considerations and the
elevation after thyroid hormone withdrawal while moni-
availability of prospective clinical trials should en-
toring serum TSH levels. This can be achieved by the
courage the clinician to refer such patients to tertiary
temporary addition of LT3 therapy to thyroxine replace-
centers with particular expertise.
ment. Satisfactory RAI treatment with either empiric or
7. Mutation profiling of metastatic tumor (to detect abnor-
dosimetric activities should be feasible after achieving TSH
malities in genes such as BRAF, TERT, RAS, or PAX8/
78
HAUGEN ET AL.
PPARc) has not yet definitively proven to be of value for
highest rates of complete remission after treatment with RAI
estimating patient prognosis or for predicting response to
(942,947,957,958). These patients should be treated with
treatments such as anti-angiogenic kinase inhibitors,
RAI therapy repeatedly every 6–12 months as long as disease
although the presence of certain mutations such as
continues to concentrate RAI and respond clinically.
BRAFV600E or PAX8/PPARc are required for some clinical
A precise definition of ‘‘responding clinically’’ is not fea-
trials. Thus, routine mutation profiling cannot be rec-
sible given the wide variation in disease presentation and re-
ommended at this time outside of research settings.
sponse to therapy. A meaningful response to RAI treatment is
generally associated with a significant reduction in serum Tg
There is little if any benefit derived from the treatment
and/or in the size or rate of growth of metastases or struc-
of RAI-refractory DTC with RAI (953). Although RAI-
turally apparent disease. In contrast, a reduction in serum Tg
refractory tumors often may harbor BRAFV600E mutations
and in RAI uptake with no concomitant decrease or with an
and RAI-avid tumors are overrepresented with RAS muta-
increase in tumor size suggests refractoriness to RAI therapy.
tions, RAI therapy has not been shown to be more effective in
In the presence of widespread metastases, especially when in
patients with RAS mutations (954).
bone, additional RAI may temporarily stabilize progression,
but it is unlikely to result in cure. The risks of bone marrow
[C29] Treatment of pulmonary metastases
suppression or pulmonary fibrosis should generate caution
when repeated doses of RAI are being considered. Absolute
&
RECOMMENDATION 77
neutrophil count and platelet counts are the usual markers of
(A) Pulmonary micrometastases should be treated with
bone marrow suppression, and pulmonary function testing
RAI therapy and RAI therapy should be repeated every 6–
including diffusing capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide
12 months as long as disease continues to concentrate RAI
can be markers of pulmonary toxicity. Other approaches (see
and respond clinically because the highest rates of com-
sections [C36–C41]) should be considered once maximal
plete remission are reported in these subgroups.
cumulative tolerable radiation doses have been administered.
Macronodular pulmonary metastases may also be treated with
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
RAI if demonstrated to be iodine avid. How many doses of RAI
(B) The selection of RAI activity to administer for
to give and how often to give RAI is a decision that must be
pulmonary micrometastases can be empiric (100–200
individualized based on the disease response to treatment, age of
mCi, or 100–150 mCi for patients ‡70 years old) or
the patient, and the presence or absence of other metastatic le-
estimated by dosimetry to limit whole-body retention to
sions (942,947). The presence of significant side effects includ-
80 mCi at 48 hours and 200 cGy to the bone marrow.
ing bone marrow suppression and salivary gland damage may
temper enthusiasm for additional RAI therapy (959), and risk of
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
second malignancies after RAI treatment remains controversial
(766,960,961). Patients with solitary pulmonary DTC metastases
&
RECOMMENDATION 78
may be considered for surgical resection, although the potential
Radioiodine-avid macronodular metastases may be treated
benefit weighed against the risk of surgery is unclear.
with RAI and treatment may be repeated when objective
The likelihood of significant long-term benefit of 131I
benefit is demonstrated (decrease in the size of the lesions,
treatment in patients with elevated Tg and negative diagnostic
decreasing Tg), but complete remission is not common and
RAI scans is very low. (962,963). While some reduction in
survival remains poor. The selection of RAI activity to
serum Tg may be observed after such empiric therapy, one
administer can be made empirically (100–200 mCi) or by
analysis concluded that there was no good evidence either for
lesional dosimetry or whole-body dosimetry if available in
or against such treatment (964). In one small retrospective
order to limit whole-body retention to 80 mCi at 48 hours
series of patients with structural disease but negative diag-
and 200 cGy to the bone marrow.
nostic 131I WBSs, additional RAI therapy was associated with
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
stability of disease in 44%, but progression of structural dis-
ease occurred in 56% of the patients (887).
In the management of the patient with pulmonary metastases,
key criteria for therapeutic decisions include (i) size of meta-
[C30] RAI treatment of bone metastases
static lesions (macronodular typically detected by chest radi-
ography, micronodular typically detected by CT, lesions beneath
&
RECOMMENDATION 79
the resolution of CT); (ii) avidity for RAI and, if applicable,
(A) RAI therapy of iodine-avid bone metastases has been
response to prior RAI therapy; and (iii) stability (or lack thereof)
associated with improved survival and should be em-
of metastatic lesions. Pulmonary pneumonitis and fibrosis are
ployed, although RAI is rarely curative.
rare complications of high-dose RAI treatment. Dosimetric ap-
proaches to therapy with a limit of 80 mCi whole-body retention
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
at 48 hours and 200 cGy to the bone marrow should be con-
(B) The RAI activity administered can be given empiri-
sidered in patients with diffuse 131I pulmonary uptake (955). If
cally (100–200 mCi) or determined by dosimetry.
pulmonary fibrosis is suspected, then appropriate periodic pul-
monary function testing and consultation should be obtained.
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
The presence of pulmonary fibrosis may limit the ability to
further treat metastatic disease with RAI (956).
RAI therapy for patients with bone metastases is rarely
Patients with pulmonary micrometastases (<2 mm, gener-
curative, but some patients with RAI-avid bone metastases
ally not seen on anatomic imaging) that are RAI avid have the
may benefit from this therapy (842,947). A dosimetrically
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
79
determined administered dose of RAI may be beneficial for
have reported primarily on patients with Tg levels after T4
patients with bone metastases (908), although this is not
withdrawal of 10 ng/mL or higher; it has been suggested that a
proven in controlled studies. Patients undergoing RAI ther-
corresponding level after rhTSH stimulation would be 5 ng/mL
apy for bone metastases should also be considered for di-
(321,782,962,968,969). Patients with a suppressed (624) or
rected therapy of bone metastases that are visible on
stimulated (970) serum Tg of 5 ng/mL or higher are unlikely to
anatomical imaging (section [C38]). This may include sur-
demonstrate a decline without therapy, and they have higher
gery, external beam radiation therapy, and other focal treat-
rates of subsequent structural recurrence than those with lower
ment modalities. These patients should also be considered for
serum Tg levels (970). In addition, a rising serum Tg indicates
systemic therapy with bone-directed agents (section [C47]).
disease that is likely to become clinically apparent, particularly
if it is rapidly rising (622,971,972).
If serum Tg levels suggest residual or recurrent disease, but
[C31] When should empiric RAI therapy
diagnostic RAI WBS imaging is negative and structural imag-
be considered for Tg-positive, RAI diagnostic
ing does not reveal disease that is amenable to directed therapy
scan–negative patients?
(surgical, thermal ablation, EBRT, alcohol ablation, see section
[C17 and C38]), then empiric therapy with RAI (100–200 mCi)
&
RECOMMENDATION 80
or dosimetrically determined RAI activities can be considered
In the absence of structurally evident disease, patients with
for two purposes: (i) to aid in disease localization, and/or (ii) as
stimulated serum Tg <10 ng/mL with thyroid hormone
therapy for nonsurgical disease. This approach may identify the
withdrawal or <5 ng/mL with rhTSH (indeterminate re-
location of persistent disease in approximately 50% of patients
sponse) can be followed without empiric RAI therapy on
(968,973,974), although the reported range of success is wide.
continued thyroid hormone therapy alone, reserving addi-
From a therapeutic perspective, over half of patients experi-
tional therapies for those with rising serum Tg levels over
ence a fall in serum Tg after empiric RAI therapy in patients
time or other evidence of structural disease progression.
with negative diagnostic WBS (963,969,975,976); however,
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
there is no evidence for improved survival with empiric therapy
in this setting (782,962,968). Further, there is evidence that Tg
&
RECOMMENDATION 81
levels may decline without specific therapy in a significant
Empiric (100–200 mCi) or dosimetrically determined RAI
proportion of patients with Tg levels <10 ng/mL (539,618–
therapy may be considered in patients with more signifi-
620,624,782,970–972,975,977–979). The most compelling ev-
cantly elevated serum Tg levels (see Recommendation 80),
idence for benefit from empiric RAI therapy is for pulmonary
rapidly rising serum Tg levels, or rising ant-Tg antibody
metastases, which are not amenable to surgical management or
levels, in whom imaging (anatomic neck/chest imaging and/
EBRT (782,844,980).
or 18FDG-PET/CT) has failed to reveal a tumor source that
is amenable to directed therapy. The risk of high cumulative
administered activities of RAI must be balanced against
[C32] What is the management of complications
uncertain long-term benefits. If empiric RAI therapy is gi-
of RAI therapy?
ven and the posttherapy scan is negative, the patient should
&
RECOMMENDATION 83
be considered to have RAI-refractory disease and no further
The evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against
RAI therapy should be administered.
the routine use of measures to prevent salivary gland
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
damage after RAI therapy.
&
RECOMMENDATION 82
(No recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
If persistent nonresectable disease is localized after an
&
empiric dose of RAI, and there is objective evidence of
RECOMMENDATION 84
significant tumor reduction, then consideration can be
Patients with xerostomia are at increased risk of dental
made for RAI therapy to be repeated until the tumor has
caries and should discuss preventive strategies with their
been eradicated or the tumor no longer responds to treat-
dental/oral health professional.
ment. The risk of repeated therapeutic doses of RAI must
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
be balanced against uncertain long-term benefits.
&
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
RECOMMENDATION 85
Surgical correction should be considered for nasolacrimal
outflow obstruction, which often presents as excessive
Factors to consider when selecting patients for empiric
tearing (epiphora) but also predisposes to infection.
RAI therapy include the level of serum Tg elevation and the
results of 18FDG-PET scanning, if performed. Since tumors
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
that are 18FDG-PET positive generally do not concentrate
While RAI appears to be a reasonably safe therapy, it is
RAI (965), RAI therapy is much less likely to be efficacious
associated with a cumulative dose-related low risk of early- and
(965,966) and it is unlikely to alter the poorer outcome in
late-onset complications such as salivary gland damage, dental
such patients (823). Because of this, it is reasonable to per-
caries (981), nasolacrimal duct obstruction (982), and secondary
form 18FDG-PET/CT scanning prior to consideration of
malignancies (762,763,961,983,984), and it may likely con-
empiric RAI therapy (967).
tribute to long-term dysphagia (985). Therefore, it is important
The cutoff value of serum Tg above which a patient should
to ensure that the benefits of RAI therapy, especially repeated
be treated with an empiric dose of RAI is not clear. Most studies
courses, outweigh the potential risks. There is probably no dose
80
HAUGEN ET AL.
of RAI that is completely safe, nor is there any maximum cu-
mCi) of 131I at 10,000 person-years of follow-up. Cumulative
mulative dose that could not be used in selected situations.
131I activities above 500–600 mCi are associated with a sig-
However, with higher individual and cumulative doses there are
nificant increase in risk. In theory, the risk of second primary
increased risks of side effects as discussed previously.
malignancies increases with higher administered activities.
For acute transient loss of taste or change in taste and
There is no direct evidence of increased risk of secondary
sialadentitis, recommended measures to prevent damage to
malignancies after a single administration of 30–100 mCi in
the salivary glands have included hydration, sour candies,
comparison to the observed risk of second primary cancer in
amifostine, and cholinergic agents (986), but evidence is
thyroid cancer patients who have not been treated with 131I. The
insufficient to recommend for or against these modalities.
risk is clearly increased in patients who have been treated with a
One study suggested sour candy may actually increase sali-
large cumulative activity that is higher than 600 mCi (763),
vary gland damage when given within 1 hour of RAI therapy,
which suggests a dose–effect relationship. This is an argument
as compared to its use until 24 hours post therapy (987).
for using the minimal activity necessary to treat each patient.
Another study showed that the use of lemon slices within
There appears to be an increased risk of breast cancer in women
20 min of 124I administration resulted in increased radiation
with thyroid cancer (762,983,993). It is unclear whether this is
absorbed dose to the salivary glands (988). A different study
due to screening bias, RAI therapy, or other factors. An ele-
suggested that early use and multiple administered doses of
vated risk of breast cancer with 131I was not observed in another
lemon juice transiently decreased radiation exposure to the
study (764). The use of laxatives may decrease radiation ex-
parotid glands (989), so the exact role and details of use of
posure of the bowel, particularly in patients treated after pro-
sialagogues to prevent salivary gland damage remains un-
longed withdrawal of thyroid hormone, and vigorous oral
certain. Patients with painful sialadenitis may receive pain
hydration will reduce exposure of the bladder and gonads (22).
relief from local application of ice. For chronic salivary gland
complications, such as dry mouth and dental caries, cholin-
[C34] What other testing should patients receiving
ergic agents may increase salivary flow (986). Interventional
RAI therapy undergo?
sialendoscopy has been shown in a number of small studies to
be an effective treatment in patients with RAI-induced sia-
&
RECOMMENDATION 87
ladenitis that is unresponsive to medical therapy (990–992).
Patients receiving therapeutic doses of RAI should have
baseline complete blood count and assessment of renal
[C33] How should patients who have received RAI
function.
therapy be monitored for risk of secondary
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
malignancies?
&
RECOMMENDATION 86
Published data indicate that when administered activities
Although patients should be counseled on the risks of
are selected to remain below 200 cGy to the bone marrow,
second primary malignancy with RAI treatment for DTC,
minimal transient effects are noted in white blood cell and
the absolute increase in risk of developing a second pri-
platelet counts (955). However, persistent mild decrements in
mary malignancy attributable to RAI treatment is consid-
white blood cell count and/or platelets are seen in some pa-
ered small and does not warrant specific screening to any
tients who have received multiple RAI therapies. Further,
extent greater than age-appropriate general population
radiation to the bone marrow is impacted by several factors,
health screening.
including renal function. The kidneys are a major means of
iodine excretion from the body, and physiologic radioisotope
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
study research in nonthyroidectomized individuals has
Most long-term follow-up studies variably report a very low
shown that renal impairment significantly reduces RAI ex-
risk of secondary malignancies (bone and soft tissue malig-
cretion (994).
nancies, including breast, colorectal, kidney, and salivary
cancers, and leukemia) in long-term survivors (762,763). A
[C35] How should patients be counseled about
meta-analysis of two large multicenter studies showed that the
RAI therapy and pregnancy, breastfeeding,
RR of second malignancies was significantly increased at 1.19
and gonadal function?
([95% CI 1.04–1.36], p < 0.010), relative to thyroid cancer
&
RECOMMENDATION 88
survivors not treated with RAI, although the absolute increase
Women of childbearing age receiving RAI therapy should
in second primary malignancy risk attributable to RAI is con-
have a negative screening evaluation for pregnancy prior
sidered to be small (961). The risk of leukemia was also sig-
to RAI administration and avoid pregnancy for 6–12
nificantly increased in thyroid cancer survivors treated with
months after receiving RAI.
RAI, with a RR of 2.5 ([95% CI 1.13–5.53], p < 0.024) (961).
Studies on T1N0 PTC from the SEER registry suggested that
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
the excess risk of leukemia after RAI treatment was greater in
young individuals compared with older individuals. The excess
&
RECOMMENDATION 89
risk of leukemia was significantly greater in patients aged <45
Radioactive iodine should not be given to nursing women.
years (standardized incidence rate of 5.32 [95% CI 2.75–9.30]
Depending on the clinical situation, RAI therapy could be
for those aged <45 years versus 2.26 [95% CI 1.43–3.39] in
deferred until lactating women have stopped breastfeeding or
older individuals) (766). The risk of secondary malignancies is
pumping for at least 3 months. A diagnostic 123I or low-dose
dose related (763), with an excess absolute risk of 14.4 solid
131I scan should be considered in recently lactating women to
cancers and of 0.8 leukemias per gigabecquerel (1 GBq = 27
detect breast uptake that may warrant deferral of therapy.
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
81
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
metastatic tissue does not ever concentrate RAI (no uptake
outside the thyroid bed at the first therapeutic WBS), (ii)
&
RECOMMENDATION 90
the tumor tissue loses the ability to concentrate RAI after
Men receiving cumulative RAI activities ‡400 mCi should
previous evidence of RAI-avid disease (in the absence of
be counseled on potential risks of infertility.
stable iodine contamination), (iii) RAI is concentrated in
some lesions but not in others; and (iv) metastatic disease
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
progresses despite significant concentration of RAI.
When a patient with DTC is classified as refractory to
Women about to receive RAI therapy should first undergo
RAI, there is no indication for further RAI treatment.
pregnancy testing. Gonadal tissue is exposed to radiation from
RAI in the blood, urine, and feces. Temporary amenorrhea/
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
oligomenorrhea lasting 4–10 months occurs in 20%–27% of
menstruating women after 131I therapy for thyroid cancer. Al-
The prognosis of patients with DTC is usually favorable, even
though the numbers of patients studied are small, long-term
when metastatic RAI-avid disease is present. For this reason,
rates of infertility, miscarriage, and fetal malformation do not
131I is considered the gold standard in the treatment of metastatic
appear to be elevated in women after RAI therapy (995–997).
disease. However, many DTC patients with advanced disease do
One recent large retrospective cohort study showed that use of
not respond or become refractory to 131I, with some of these
RAI was associated with delayed childbearing and decreased
patients dying within 3–5 years, but there are also long-term
birthrate in later years, although it is unclear if this is due to
survivors with very slowly progressive disease.
reproductive choice or reproductive health (998). Another large
Iodine 131 refractory DTC includes four categories of
retrospective study suggested that pregnancy should be post-
patients (1010). In the first category, the malignant/metastatic
poned for 1 year after therapy because of an increase in mis-
tissue does not concentrate 131I outside the thyroid bed at the
carriage rate (999), although this was not confirmed in a
first therapeutic WBS. There is no evidence in these patients
subsequent study (1000). Ovarian damage from RAI therapy
that further treatment with RAI may be of any benefit. Fur-
may result in menopause occurring approximately 1 year ear-
thermore, patients with measurable disease with an absence
lier than in the general population, but this result was not as-
of 131I uptake on subsequent diagnostic WBS may also be
sociated with cumulative dose administered or the age at which
considered refractory because even when uptake is seen on
the therapy was given (1001). Radioiodine is also significantly
posttherapy scan, it will likely have limited benefit. In the
concentrated in lactating breast tissue (1002). Therefore, RAI
second category, the tumor tissue loses the ability to con-
should not be given to women who are breastfeeding (1003). A
centrate 131I (in the absence of stable iodine contamination)
diagnostic 123I or low-dose 131I scan can be employed in re-
after previous evidence of uptake. This often occurs in pa-
cently lactating women to detect breast uptake that may warrant
tients with large and multiple metastases and is due to the
deferral of therapy (662). Dopaminergic agents might be useful
eradication by 131I treatment of differentiated cells able to
in decreasing breast exposure in recently lactating women, al-
concentrate RAI but not of poorly differentiated cells that do
though caution should be exercised given the risk of serious,
not concentrate 131I and that generally will progress. In the
albeit rare, side effects associated with their routine use to
third category, 131I uptake is retained in some lesions but not
suppress postpartum lactation (1003,1004).
in others; this pattern is frequent in patients with multiple
In men, RAI therapy may be associated with a temporary
large metastases as shown by 124I studies on PET scan (918)
reduction in sperm counts and elevated serum follicle-
and by comparing results of 18FDG-PET scan with 131I WBS.
stimulating hormone levels (1005,1006). Higher cumulative
In these patients, progression is likely to occur in metastases
activities (500–800 mCi) in men are associated with an
without uptake (in particular when 18FDG uptake is present),
increased risk of persistent elevation of serum follicle-
and RAI treatment will not be beneficial on the overall out-
stimulating hormone levels, but fertility and risks of
come of the disease. Some patients may have predominantly
miscarriage or congenital abnormalities in subsequent preg-
RAI-avid disease with only a few lesions that do not con-
nancies are not changed with moderate RAI activities (*200
centrate RAI. While these patients technically meet the def-
mCi) (1007,1008). Permanent male infertility is unlikely with
inition of RAI-refractory disease, they may benefit from a
a single ablative activity of RAI, but theoretically there could
combination of RAI therapy for the majority of the lesions
be cumulative damage with multiple treatments. It has been
and directed therapy (section [C38]; Recommendation 93)
suggested that sperm banking be considered in men who may
for those few lesions that do not concentrate RAI. In the
receive cumulative RAI activities ‡400 mCi (1006). Gonadal
fourth category, metastatic disease progresses despite sig-
radiation exposure is reduced with good hydration, frequent
nificant uptake of 131I (new lesions, progressive growth of
micturition to empty the bladder, and avoidance of con-
lesions, continual rise in serum Tg within months of RAI
stipation (1009). Some specialists recommend that men wait
therapy). The definition of any of these possibilities depends
3 months (or one full sperm cycle) to avoid the potential for
on imaging modalities, including a posttherapy 131I WBS
transient chromosomal abnormalities.
combined with other imaging modalities, such as CT scan,
MRI, or 18FDG PET/CT. The criteria for RAI-refractory
[C36] How is RAI-refractory DTC classified?
disease remain somewhat controversial. Future studies will
hopefully help to refine this definition.
&
RECOMMENDATION 91
Predictive factors for tumor response to RAI treatment are
Radioiodine-refractory structurally evident DTC is clas-
indeed the presence of 131I uptake by tumor, and among those
sified in patients with appropriate TSH stimulation and
patients with RAI uptake, younger age, well-differentiated his-
iodine preparation in four basic ways: (i) the malignant/
totype, small metastases, and low 18FDG uptake. Indeed these
82
HAUGEN ET AL.
parameters are closely interrelated (823,824,844) and may per-
of each lesion measured. Disease extent can be considered
mit predicting the outcome of RAI treatment at the time of the
to be stable or minimally progressive if the sum of the
discovery of the metastases. About two-thirds of patients with
longest diameters of the target lesions increases <20% in the
metastases demonstrate 131I uptake in their metastases, and only
absence of new metastatic foci on sequential imaging over
half of them will be cured with repeated courses of 131I treatment.
12–15 months of follow-up. No study has identified an ap-
Less clear is the case of patients with visible RAI uptake in all
propriate frequency for repeat imaging, but it is reasonable
the known lesions, who are not cured despite several treatment
to repeat the staging imaging studies within 3–12 months
courses but whose disease remains stable and does not progress
based on the disease burden and locations of lesions
according to RECIST criteria. It is controversial whether these
(953,1012). More frequent assessment could be considered
patients should be considered 131I refractory and whether RAI
once metastatic disease is identified and/or in response to
treatment should be abandoned in favor of other treatment mo-
intercurrent patient symptoms, and less frequent imaging
dalities. The probability to obtain a cure with further treatments
performed once a pattern of stability is identified. The
is low and side effects may increase, including the risk of sec-
development of progressive disease, either by RECIST
ondary cancers and leukemias (762,763,844,961). Several pa-
assessment identifying at least 20% increase in sum of
rameters should then be taken into consideration for the decision
longest diameters of target lesions, the appearance of
to continue treatment with RAI, including response to previous
significant new metastatic lesions, or development of
treatment courses, high or significant 131I uptake after previous
disease-related symptoms should warrant consideration of
treatment courses, low 18FDG uptake in tumor foci, and limited
appropriate systemic therapies (section [C41]) beyond
side effects from the RAI therapy.
TSH-suppressive thyroid hormone and/or directed thera-
pies (sections [C15] and [C38]). Although serum Tg levels
[C37] Which patients with metastatic thyroid
should be measured as biomarkers of the disease extent,
cancer can be followed without additional
patients should not be identified as having progressive
therapy?
disease and requiring more aggressive therapy solely on
the basis of rising levels of Tg; accelerating increases in Tg
levels should, however, lead to consideration of more
&
RECOMMENDATION 92
frequent and comprehensive imaging in efforts to identify
(A) Patients with 131I-refractory metastatic DTC that is
previously occult structural correlates.
asymptomatic, stable, or minimally progressive who are
In each of two recent international, randomized phase III
not likely to develop rapidly progressive, clinically sig-
trials of kinase inhibitors for therapy of progressive, RAI-
nificant complications and do not have indications for di-
refractory, metastatic DTC, patients whose tumors contained
rected therapy can be monitored on TSH-suppressive
the BRAFV600E mutation who were randomized to the pla-
thyroid hormone therapy with serial radiographic imaging
cebo treatment arms experienced similar progression-free
every 3–12 months.
survival compared with those whose tumors did not harbor a
BRAF mutation (1013,1014). Thus, BRAF mutation status
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
does not appear to be of prognostic value once patients reach
(B) BRAF or other mutational testing is not routinely rec-
this degree of advanced disease that would have qualified
ommended for prognostic purposes in patients with RAI-
them for these clinical trials, that is, RAI-refractory, locally
refractory, progressive, locally advanced, or metastatic DTC.
advanced, or metastatic DTC that has progressed by RECIST
within 13 or 14 months.
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
[C38] What is the role for directed therapy
Patients with 131I-refractory metastatic DTC often have an
in advanced thyroid cancer?
indolent clinical course, with no apparent symptoms or ad-
verse impact from their disease burden for many years. In the
&
RECOMMENDATION 93
absence of tolerable therapies with significant likelihood of
(A) Both stereotactic radiation and thermal ablation (RFA
inducing durable complete remission or improving overall
and cryoablation) show a high efficacy in treating indi-
survival, treatment should be limited to interventions that
vidual distant metastases with relatively few side effects
prevent morbidity or palliate symptoms. Thus, once 131I re-
and may be considered as valid alternatives to surgery.
fractory metastatic disease is identified, attention should be
directed toward (i) determining the extent of metastatic dis-
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
ease by staging imaging studies such as CT, 18FDG PET/CT,
(B) Stereotactic radiation or thermal ablation should be
or MRI as described in sections [C9–C13]; (ii) assessing
considered prior to initiation of systemic treatment when
degree of current or potential symptoms from the disease;
the individual distant metastases are symptomatic or at
(iii) understanding the comorbidities that might influence the
high risk of local complications.
choice of therapies for the metastatic disease; and (iv) de-
termining the rate of progression of radiographically evident
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
lesions. Serial assessment of the size and development of
Several local treatment modalities other than surgery may
metastatic lesions can be enhanced by applying criteria
be used to treat brain, lung, liver, and bone lesions from
similar to RECIST, as commonly used to assess tumor re-
thyroid carcinoma. These local treatment modalities should
sponse in clinical trials (1011). Representative soft tissue
be considered prior to initiation of systemic treatment when
metastatic lesions, typically >1 cm, are identified as ‘‘tar-
the individual distant metastases are symptomatic or at high
gets’’ on cross-sectional imaging, with the longest diameter
risk of local complications. They may also be helpful in case
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
83
of progression in a single lesion in patients with otherwise
radiotherapy demonstrated a higher efficacy on tumor control
controlled disease during systemic treatment. In these pa-
and for limiting radiation to the spinal cord, especially in
tients, benefits can be achieved in preventing local compli-
patients who need to be re-irradiated. A local tumor control
cations, in improving symptoms such as pain, in delaying the
rate of bone lesions for SBRT ranging from 88% to 100% was
initiation of systemic treatments, and even in improving
reported especially for lesions that were previously surgically
survival. These techniques can be a less aggressive alterna-
resected, with a pain relief rate of 30%–83%. SBRT protocols
tive to surgery and may be indicated in cases of lung me-
differed among studies, with a maximum of 30 Gy admin-
tastases associated with insufficient respiratory reserve, poor
istrated in one to five fractions but a single dose of 12.5–15
patient clinical status, or after multiple previous surgical re-
Gy seems to achieve similar results (1018). Spinal myelop-
sections, local recurrence at the site of previous surgery, or
athy or vertebral fractures are the most important side effects,
refusal of additional surgery.
especially in case of large-volume lesions.
In selected patients, the techniques may be an alternative to
Percutaneous thermal ablation is aimed at destroying tumor
surgery as first-line treatment, and they may induce local
foci by increasing (RFA) or decreasing (cryoablation) tem-
tumor control with a similar efficacy to surgical resection. Of
peratures sufficiently to induce irreversible cellular damages.
interest, long-term benefits in terms of disease control have
RFA is performed for liver, lung, and bone tumor foci.
been reported in patients with a single or few metastases and
Clinical trials showed high efficacy of RFA for liver lesions,
in whom the disease is slowly progressive.
especially from colorectal cancer with long-term local disease
Interventional radiology (thermal ablation and cement in-
control ranging from 40% to 80%, depending on lesion size,
jections), SBRT, or intensity modulated radiotherapy are the
and a prolonged overall survival in treated patients (1019,1020).
most frequently used techniques. The main principle of these
In a total of 100 lung lesions including primary lung tu-
techniques is to selectively treat the lesion, be minimally
mors and metastases, RFA was both efficient and well tol-
invasive, and be well tolerated with relatively few side ef-
erated, with a complete tumor control rate of 93% at 18
fects. The indications and the feasibility of each technique
months (1021). A multicenter prospective trial on 183 lung
depend on the location and the size of the lesion to be treated.
metastases from cancer other than colorectal showed a
Experience with metastases from thyroid cancer is scarce,
complete response rate of 88% at 1 year and an overall sur-
and most available data have been obtained in patients with
vival of 92% and 64% at 1 year and at 2 years, respectively
metastases from nonthyroid cancers.
(1022). Recurrence occurs more frequently in lesions >3 cm
SBRT allows for delivering high radiation doses in few
and can be detected early after ablation (within 3 months) by
fractions to the target tumoral lesion with a high degree of
18FDG PET/CT (824,1016). Cases of delayed recurrence
precision, minimizing the radiation of normal surrounding
have also been reported, and long-term follow-up is needed.
tissue. It has been used in several trials to treat brain, liver,
RFA may be considered for lung lesions <3 cm of diameter,
lung, and bone metastases.
without soft tissue or mediastinum invasion and without
For patients with few (one to three) brain metastases,
contact with large vessels. Furthermore, repeated treatments
SBRT is as effective as surgery and can be repeated in case of
can be performed on the same lesion and multiple lesions can
appearance of new brain lesions. It is usually well tolerated,
be treated in the same patient.
and brain necrosis that occurred in less than 10% of cases is
RFA or cryoablation of bone lesions showed promising
usually limited and had no clinical consequences. The patient
results with rapid (1–7 days) and long-lasting pain control
outcome depends mostly on the progression rate of extra-
(1023,1024). Cryoablation is a safe technique to treat or to
cerebral lesions (1015).
stabilize bone lesions, is frequently associated with ce-
Data on lung and liver metastases are available only in ret-
mentoplasty to consolidate the bone and avoid subsequent
rospective studies on low numbers of patients and with a me-
complications, and can treat larger lesions than RFA.
dian follow-up of less than 1 year in most cases and in one
Local disease control was achieved in the few reported
prospective study (1016). This study included patients with
cases of lung and bone metastases from thyroid cancer treated
many different primary tumors, including 10% of the patients
by thermal ablation (883,1016,1025). The association of
having thyroid cancer. They showed a local control rate ranging
cryoablation and cementoplasty seems promising in purely
from 63% to 98% in lung lesions and from 57% to 100% in
lytic bone metastases from thyroid cancer. Furthermore, in
liver lesions, with a cumulative dose delivered ranging from 20
three patients with liver metastases from thyroid cancer (two
to 75 Gy in 5–15 fractions. The local tumor control seems to be
MTC and one FTC) RFA was feasible and reduced local
long lasting with complete response ranging from 70% to 90%
symptoms (1026). Multidisciplinary treatment for metasta-
at 2–3 years. Furthermore, rare (<3%) grade 3–4 toxicities
ses from thyroid cancer especially for bone metastases—
(pneumonitis, pleural effusion, intestinal complications) were
including, for example, thermal ablation (RFA or cryoabla-
reported (1017). These toxicities are much less common that
tion) and/or cementoplasty associated with systemic treatment
those associated with percutaneous treatment modalities. The
(RAI, bone-directed agents, or chemotherapy)—can improve
local control rate seems to be dose-related, but the optimal
the patient’s quality of life by reducing pain and prolonging
protocol for SBRT is still not established.
time to skeletal events, delaying initiation of systemic treat-
Concerning bone lesions, radiotherapy plays an important
ment, and even improving patient survival (1027).
role because it can complement surgery in case of incomplete
The toxicity of thermal ablation is generally low, but
resection or be used alone for pain relief or palliation. In
pneumothorax or pleural effusion was observed in up to 50%
many cases, usual radiotherapy can be given. However, the
of RFA procedures for lung lesions, but it rarely required
major limitation of radiotherapy in spine lesions is the cu-
further treatments. Local pain or transient neurological deficit
mulative dose to the spinal cord. SBRT compared to standard
or vertebral fracture can occur in case of ablation of bone
84
HAUGEN ET AL.
lesions (5%–6%), and intestinal perforation, abdominal pain,
within contexts in which approved and ‘‘standard of care’’
or intraperitoneal bleeding was observed following ablation
therapies already exist (1031). The reasons for this association
of liver lesions (1021,1028).
are unclear, but there is no evidence to suggest that trial par-
Published experience using thermal ablation and stereo-
ticipation is deleterious to patient outcomes, and it may be
tactic radiation in thyroid cancer patients is limited, and
beneficial. Participation in a clinical trial should be considered
recommendations are currently based on more robust evi-
in any situation wherein there exists no effective or proven
dence in other solid tumors. Randomized prospective studies
standard of care, or when a standard of care is being compared
comparing the efficacy and tolerability of these different
with a promising new or investigational therapy. Adjuvant
techniques are lacking, and their choice in clinical practice is
therapy trials may be appropriate for patients at high risk for
based on local experience, lesion location as well as patient
disease recurrence following primary treatment who wish to
status and preference.
pursue aggressive therapy. For patients with RAI-refractory
carcinoma that is locally advanced or metastatic, clinical trials
may be appropriate in the setting of disease that is considered
[C39] Treatment of brain metastases
progressive by RECIST criteria, especially if progression oc-
curred after use of an approved kinase inhibitor such as len-
&
RECOMMENDATION 94
vatinib or sorafenib, and/or if approved therapies are otherwise
While surgical resection and stereotactic EBRT are the
unaffordable to a specific patient. Patients demonstrated to
mainstays of therapy for CNS metastases, RAI can be
have specific therapeutically targetable tumor alterations, such
considered if CNS metastases concentrate RAI. If RAI is
as BRAF mutations or PAX8/PPARc or ALK rearrangements,
being considered, stereotactic EBRT and concomitant glu-
can also be considered for trials testing therapies specifically
cocorticoid therapy are recommended prior to RAI therapy
targeting these alterations. However, given the indolent nature
to minimize the effects of a potential TSH-induced increase
of metastatic disease in most patients, therapeutic clinical trial
in tumor size and RAI-induced inflammatory response.
participation should not be considered for patients with stable,
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
asymptomatic metastatic disease unless agents with significant
likelihood of complete remission, prolongation of survival, or
Brain metastases typically occur in older patients with
biologic impact such as redifferentiation that could sensitize to
more advanced disease and are associated with a poor
definitive therapy are available (see section [C37]).
prognosis (933). Surgical resection and stereotactic EBRT
are the mainstays of therapy (933,1029,1030). There are few
[C41] What is the role of systemic therapy (kinase
data showing efficacy of RAI. Stereotactic radiation therapy
inhibitors, other selective therapies, conventional
is preferred to whole-brain radiation because life expectancy
chemotherapy, bisphosphonates, denosumab)
in patients with brain metastases may be prolonged, and
in treating metastatic DTC?
stereotactic radiation induces less short- and long-term tox-
icity compared with whole-brain radiation (fatigue, head-
Systemic therapeutics of several types in selected clinical
ache, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes), and it may
contexts appear to provide clinical benefit in treating meta-
be effective even in patients with multiple brain lesions.
static DTC (1032). Benefit has been demonstrated in the form
of improved progression-free survival (delay in time to dis-
[C40] Who should be considered for clinical trials?
ease progression or death) in three randomized, double-
blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trials: vandetanib (1033),
&
RECOMMENDATION 95
sorafenib (1013), and lenvatinib (1034). Benefit has also been
Patients should be considered for referral to participate in
demonstrated in the form of induced durable tumor regres-
prospective therapeutic clinical trials based upon specific
sion (1035–1037).
eligibility requirements for given studies and the likeli-
However, randomized clinical trial data are not yet avail-
hood that the patient may or may not benefit from study
able to address many additional critical questions, including
participation. Clinicians considering referral of patients for
effects of systemic therapies of various types on survival and
trials should review available treatment options and eli-
quality of life, or to address critical issues of optimal patient
gibility criteria, preferably through discussions with trial
selection/inclusion/exclusion criteria for therapy and dura-
center personnel and review of trial materials at the web-
tion of treatment.
site www.clinicaltrials.org.
To date, no clinical trial has demonstrated an overall survival
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
advantage or improved quality of life from use of any therapy
A therapeutic clinical trial is a systematic investigation of
in RAI-refractory DTC (1013,1034). Consequently, thera-
the effectiveness and safety of a potential new or modified
peutic decisions are presently based upon the convergence of
treatment or combination of treatments, potentially including
expert opinion and patient preference/philosophy, thus em-
medications, surgery, radiation therapy, and/or other novel or
phasizing the critical need to address the above questions de-
revised approaches. A broad variety of such trials may exist at
finitively through clinical trials. It is therefore important to
any given time, which can generally be identified through
involve highly skilled clinicians familiar with RAI-refractory
online databases such as www.clinicaltrials.org, best supple-
disease and these systemic therapies in decision-making until
mented with direct contact with the institutions conducting
definitive guidelines can be developed based upon more rig-
trials of particular interest so as to ensure trial availability and
orous data. As a guide, evidence-based recommendations with
patient eligibility. There is limited evidence that enrollment
expert consensus have been recently published (953).
into clinical trials is associated with lower overall cancer-
It should also be highlighted that, broadly construed, sys-
specific mortality for patients with common cancers, even
temic therapy encompasses not only more recently emerging
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
85
‘‘targeted’’ approaches, but also historical ‘‘mainstay’’
Kinase inhibitors that are FDA approved for differentiated
therapies including TSH suppression and RAI. Although
thyroid carcinoma or other available kinase inhibitors (pref-
more ‘‘novel’’ approaches have attracted attention recently, it
erably within the context of therapeutic clinical trials) can be
is important to optimally apply fundamental approaches. In
considered since the impact of these agents on overall sur-
this regard, therapeutic RAI should also be used to optimal
vival and quality of life remains to be defined.
effect prior to the initiation of more recent/novel therapies.
(Weak recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
To accomplish this requires attention to detail, including
ensuring adequate TSH stimulation, patient adherence to
(B) Patients who are candidates for kinase inhibitor ther-
low-iodine pre-RAI therapy dietary restrictions, and avoid-
apy should be thoroughly counseled on the potential risks
ance of proximal preceding iodine contamination from IV
and benefits of this therapy as well as alternative thera-
contrast agents, with verification by urinary iodine concen-
peutic approaches including best supportive care. Appro-
tration measurements in selected cases. In this context, oc-
priate
informed
consent
should
be
obtained
and
casional patients previously declared ‘‘RAI-refractory’’ can
documented in the medical record prior to initiation of any
instead be found to have RAI-responsive disease when such
therapy, regardless of whether the patient is being treated
details are attended to if previously neglected.
in the context of a clinical trial.
Also important is the consideration of alternatives to the
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
use of systemic therapy, such as the application of surgery or
other localized approaches (including radiation therapy or
Cytotoxic chemotherapy has historically produced disap-
thermal ablation approaches). In patients in whom the threats
pointing results in patients with DTC (1038). Kinase inhibi-
imposed by cancer are more localized, directed approaches
tors, many of which share the common target of the VEGF
may have greater potential to control localized disease and
receptor (VEGFR) (e.g., sorafenib, pazopanib, sunitinib,
symptoms compared to systemic therapies, especially given
lenvatinib, axitinib, cabozantinib, and vandetanib), have re-
the absence of data to indicate survival benefit or improved
cently emerged as highly promising therapies for metastatic
quality of life from the application of systemic therapies in
RAI-refractory DTC (1032). Kinase inhibitors, however, are
advanced RAI-refractory DTC.
associated with numerous adverse effects including diarrhea,
It is also critically important to ensure that the disease
fatigue, induced hypertension (requiring initiation of anti-
prompting therapy represents metastatic thyroid cancer. In
hypertensive therapy in about half of all previously normo-
particular, because pulmonary nodules attributable to benign
tensive individuals), hepatotoxicity, skin changes, nausea,
causes are common, the presence of pulmonary nodules does
increased LT
not in and of itself justify the application of systemic therapy.
4 dosage requirement, changes in taste, and
weight loss. These potential side effects have high proba-
Thus, in cases of diagnostic uncertainty in which the result
bility of negatively impacting quality of life and/or neces-
would have definitive therapeutic implications, biopsy is re-
sitating dosage reductions in many patients and treatment
quired, especially when Tg levels are low/unhelpful (such as
discontinuation in up to 20% of patients. Furthermore, these
in the presence of anti-Tg antibodies). Conversely, stable,
agents are also associated with more serious and potentially
asymptomatic pulmonary nodules of a few millimeters in size
fatal risks including of thrombosis, bleeding, heart failure,
likely do not justify invasive assessment or systemic therapy.
hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal tract fistula formation, and
The introduction of systemic therapy requires that both the
intestinal perforation (1039). Overall, the risk of therapy-
clinician and the patient agree that clinical benefits are ex-
related death in cancer patients treated with oral kinase in-
pected to exceed risks for that individual patient. The prob-
hibitors is about 1.5%–2% (RR = 2.23, p < 0.023, compared
lem in this determination, however, is that it is often very
with randomized placebo treated control cancer patients)
difficult to precisely define such risks and benefits because
based upon meta-analysis of results from 10 recently pub-
they vary greatly depending upon patient context and they are
lished randomized trials conducted in several cancers
often poorly articulated in the literature. It is also critical to
(1039). In the setting of thyroid cancer, lenvatinib (now
weigh not just risks of death and injury, but also risks of
approved in the United States for use in RAI-refractory
systemic therapies on quality of life, especially as viewed by
DTC) was associated with severe toxicities in 75% of pa-
a particular patient considering treatment. Hence, the deci-
tients and therapy-attributed mortality in 2.3% of patients
sion is not based solely on benefits and risks of therapy, but
(1034). While risk of drug-related death is relatively low,
also on patient value judgments. Issues of risks and benefits
the knowledge of potentially fatal therapeutic outcomes
are reviewed in this context in conjunction with each thera-
should prompt considerable restraint in the use of kinase
peutic modality below. Finally, it is important that the in-
inhibitors, especially in patients who are asymptomatic and/
volved care team (physicians, physician assistants, nurse
or with stable or slowly progressive disease and in patients
practitioners, nurses) be experienced in the use and man-
who can otherwise be effectively treated using directed
agement of toxicities associated with these therapies.
therapies.
Three randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials (phase
[C42] Kinase inhibitors
2, vandetanib; phase 3, sorafenib and lenvatinib) had been
published by the time of the writing of these guidelines, each
&
RECOMMENDATION 96
demonstrating delayed time to disease progression among
(A) Kinase inhibitor therapy should be considered in RAI-
kinase inhibitor–treated patients relative to those treated with
refractory DTC patients with metastatic, rapidly progressive,
a placebo (1013,1033,1034). On this basis, sorafenib and
symptomatic, and/or imminently threatening disease not
lenvatinib were approved for use in the United States and the
otherwise amenable to local control using other approaches.
European Union for patients with advanced RAI-refractory
86
HAUGEN ET AL.
DTC. Sorafenib or vandetanib treatment were each associ-
1040–1043) prompt prominent consideration of either len-
ated with progression-free survival prolonged by 5 months,
vatinib or sorafenib as a first-line therapy.
with <15% objective response rates, but with no improve-
Despite encouraging trial results, the extent to which any
ment on overall survival demonstrated to date. Assessments
kinase inhibitor may prolong overall survival and in which
comparing sorafenib to placebo outcomes demonstrated
contexts remains undefined. In some situations, however, the
overall lower quality of life among sorafenib-treated patients
decision to initiate kinase inhibitor therapy is straightfor-
relative to those treated with placebo, despite improved
ward. For example, patients with oxygen dependence at-
progression-free survival. Lenvatinib therapy was associated
tributable to DTC lung metastases are not only adversely
with longer prolonged median progression-free survival by
affected by their cancers, but also imminently threatened.
14.7 months compared with placebo, with a RECIST re-
Such patients have potential to gain symptomatic bene-
sponse rate of 65%, with some complete responses also re-
fit even in the absence of definite extension of life. At
ported. Despite these very encouraging results and regulatory
the other extreme, many patients with metastatic DTC are
approval, however, no statistically significant impact of
asymptomatic from their cancers and are not expected to be
lenvatinib (or any other kinase inhibitor) therapy on overall
threatened by their cancers in the foreseeable future. These
survival has yet been observed (1034). However, survival
patients should remain on TSH-suppressive treatment as their
data in this context, where all three randomized and placebo-
primary therapeutic intervention rather than be exposed to
controlled DTC trials allowed crossover of placebo-treated
kinase inhibitor therapy. For patients with disease between
patients to kinase inhibitor, must be interpreted with great
these two extremes, it is critical that risks and benefits of
caution. The crossover trial designs effectively ‘‘contami-
therapy, anticipated side effects, goals, patient context, and
nated’’ overall survival data, with many placebo-treated pa-
the therapeutic philosophy of each particular patient be
tients later crossing over to receive open-label kinase
thoroughly vetted so as to best individualize therapy. This
inhibitor. Hence, the absence of a proven effect of kinase
decision is ideally made within the context of specialized
inhibitors on overall survival in these trials can best be in-
centers with comprehensive knowledge of the natural his-
terpreted as indicating that, among study populations, a delay
tory of the disease and of the effects of available therapies.
in initiation of kinase inhibitor therapy until observation of
As a general ‘‘expert consensus’’ guideline, structurally
RECIST disease progression among initially placebo-treated
progressive, symptomatic, and/or imminently threatening
patients did not adversely affect overall survival.
DTC (wherein disease progression is expected to require
Additional VEGFR-directed kinase inhibitors including
intervention and/or to produce morbidity or mortality in <6
axitinib, pazopanib, cabozantinib, and sunitinib also have
months) that is RAI refractory and not amenable to satis-
activity in metastatic DTC based upon phase 2 therapeutic
factory control using directed approaches (e.g., surgery,
trials (1035–1037). No multi-arm comparison ‘‘superiority’’
radiation therapy, thermal ablation) should prompt consid-
phase 3 trial data in DTC are available to inform decision-
eration of kinase inhibitor therapy. Specific characteristics
making with regard to selection among available and mostly
impacting decision-making for starting such therapy are
similarly targeted kinase inhibitors. Recent regulatory ap-
outlined in Table 16.
proval in DTC and more abundant outcome data in response
Patients who are candidates for kinase inhibitor ther-
to lenvatinib and sorafenib therapy in DTC (1013,1034,
apy should be thoroughly counseled with regard not only to
a
Table 16. Factors to Review When Considering Kinase Inhibitor Therapy
Factors favoring kinase inhibitor therapy
Factors discouraging kinase inhibitor therapy
Imminently threatening disease progression expected to
Comorbidity including
require intervention and/or to produce morbidity or
Active or recent intestinal disease (e.g., diverticu-
mortality in <6 months (e.g., pulmonary lesions or
litis, inflammatory bowel disease, recent bowel
lymphadenopathy likely to rapidly invade airways,
resection)
produce dyspnea, or cause bronchial obstruction).
Liver disease
Symptomatic disease (e.g., exertional dyspnea, painful
Recent bleeding (e.g., ulcer/GI bleed) or coagulo-
unresectable adenopathy), not adequately addressable
pathy
using directed therapy.
Recent cardiovascular event(s) (e.g., CVA, MI)
Recent tracheal radiation therapy (this is associated
Diffuse disease progression as opposed to focal pro-
with increased risks of aerodigestive fistula with
gression (e.g., in multiple lung metastases, as opposed
kinase inhibitor therapy)
to a few growing lesions)
Cachexia/low weight/poor nutrition
Poorly controlled hypertension
Prolonged QTc interval/history of significant ar-
rhythmia (includes ventricular and bradyarrhythmias)
Untreated brain metastases (controversial)
Recent suicidal ideation (suicide has been reported in
depressed patients receiving TKIs)
Life expectancy based upon other comorbidities estimated
to be too brief to justify systemic therapy
aBone metastases are often poorly responsive to kinase inhibitor therapy (see Bone-Directed Agents in section [C47]).
GI, gastrointestinal; CVA, cerebrovascular accident; MI, myocardial infarction; TKI, tyrosine kinase inhibitor.
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
87
potential benefits, but also about potential side effects and
or even be fatal; as a consequence, great care must be taken
risks of therapy and alternative therapeutic approaches in-
not only in selecting appropriate patients for therapy, but also
cluding best supportive care, as should be the case with any
in monitoring patients once they are receiving kinase inhib-
medical therapeutic decision-making (1044). Such extensive
itor therapy (1044). Some toxicities (e.g., fatigue, diarrhea,
and comprehensive discussions are particularly important to
gastrointestinal symptoms, cutaneous effects) will be symp-
undertake in the context of kinase inhibitor therapy because
tomatic and can be more easily addressed upon close com-
of the high probability of side effects of these agents and
munication with patients. However, there are also more
because of their presently uncertain effects on patient overall
serious potential toxicities that might not be expected to
survival and quality of life (1045).
immediately lead to patient symptoms (e.g., hepatotoxicity,
Another critical and complex question often faced in
prolonged QTc) that require proactive screening (Table 17).
treating patients with kinase inhibitor therapy centers on
Hypertension and hepatotoxicity are especially important to
when treatment should be discontinued once initiated. In
serially monitor and rapidly address. Cardiotoxicity is also im-
general, therapy should be continued so long as net benefit
portant to be aware of and to monitor according to patient risk
exceeds net detriment. In case of slow RECIST disease
factors, agent used, and induced symptoms/signs. In particular,
progression after significant tumor response, treatment may
sunitinib induces a decreased cardiac ejection fraction in about
be maintained so long as overall disease control is maintained
20% of treated patients (1047). Furthermore, kinase inhibitors
providing that toxicities are manageable. Progression rate
can induce QTc prolongation that should prompt careful con-
should be taken into account, and when global progression is
sideration of coadministered drugs and periodic electrocardi-
rapid, therapy should be discontinued. However, there are
ography. Also important is that kinase inhibitor half-life is long;
times when focal/oligometastatic disease progression ame-
consequently, severe toxicities should prompt complete cessa-
nable to directed therapies is noted. In such instances, su-
tion of kinase inhibitor therapy for an adequate amount of time to
perimposed loco-regional therapies in the setting of
allow drug levels to decline before resumption at a lower dosage.
maintained systemic therapy can sometimes be in the best
Serum TSH level frequently increases during kinase in-
interest of a particular patient. For instance, in the setting of
hibitor therapy; this should lead to frequent TSH assessment
regressed lung metastases and yet progression at a solitary
in conjunction with therapy initiation and upon therapy ces-
bone site, maintained systemic therapy with superimposed
sation, with responsive modifications thyroid hormone ther-
directed radiation therapy may be reasonable.
apy where indicated.
[C43] Patients for whom first-line kinase inhibitor therapy
[C45] Other novel agents
fails
&
RECOMMENDATION 99
&
RECOMMENDATION 97
Agents without established efficacy in DTC should be used
Patients who have disease progression while on initial
primarily within the context of therapeutic clinical trials.
kinase inhibitor therapy without prohibitive adverse ef-
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
fects should be considered for second-line kinase inhibitor
therapy. Ideally, such therapy should be undertaken within
A variety of novel agents have been and/or are being tested
the context of therapeutic clinical trials.
as candidate therapeutics in progressive metastatic RAI-
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
refractory DTC (1032,1048). At the time of the writing of these
guidelines, however, only kinase inhibitors have shown suf-
DTC patients who progress through first-line line kinase
ficient promise to consider use other than within the context of
inhibitor therapy commonly respond to a second similarly
therapeutic clinical trials. Agents of particular interest for
targeted agent, and thus they should be considered candidates
further testing include BRAF kinase inhibitors because PTC
for second-line kinase inhibitor therapy (1014,1046). Hence,
frequently harbors the constitutively activating BRAFV600E
the selection of an agent for initial therapy may be less critical
mutation and the inhibitors have already shown efficacy and
in some senses because many patient will go on to receive
been approved for use in BRAF mutant melanoma (1049–
several kinase inhibitors over their disease courses. In the
1051). Inhibitors of MEK kinase and other signaling pathways
near future, other treatment modalities, such as RAI re-
are also of considerable investigational interest. In addition,
sensitization therapy, immunotherapy, or drugs directed to
promising initial results in response to use of kinase inhibition
other targets, may also offer additional therapeutic options.
to ‘‘resensitize’’ RAI-refractory tumors to RAI have been re-
ported (1052). Data developed to date, however, do not yet
[C44] Management of toxicities from kinase inhibitor therapy
favor the use of these novel approaches over use of VEGFR-
directed kinase inhibitors unless within the context of thera-
&
RECOMMENDATION 98
peutic clinical trials or alternatively when used as ‘‘salvage’’
Proactive monitoring and timely intervention in response
therapies after disease progression has occurred despite prior
to emergent toxicities are critical components of man-
VEGFR-directed kinase inhibitor therapy.
agement in patients receiving kinase inhibitor therapy.
[C46] Cytotoxic chemotherapy
(Strong recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
&
RECOMMENDATION 100
Patients treated with kinase inhibitors are subject to many
Cytotoxic chemotherapy can be considered in RAI-
potential toxicities that can negatively impact quality of life
refractory DTC patients with metastatic, rapidly progressive,
88
HAUGEN ET AL.
Table 17. Potential Toxicities and Recommended Screening or Monitoring Approaches
in Patients Started on Kinase Inhibitor Therapy
Toxicity
Recommended screening/monitoring
Hypertension
Frequent blood pressure monitoring, most critical during the first 8 weeks of
therapy; if hypertension is induced, therapy should be individualized to patient
response
Note: effective and expeditious management of hypertension is critical - and
may reduce potential for cardiotoxicity. If antihypertensive therapy is
needed, calcium channel blockers (e.g., amlodipine) may be most effective.
Cutaneous/mucocutaneous toxicities
Careful patient reporting of rash/mouth sores, patient awareness and education
related to increased potential for photosentization/sunburn.
Hepatotoxicity
Serial assessment of alanine serum transferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase and
bilirubin - most critical during the first 8 weeks of therapy
Note: dose reduction of kinase inhibitor therapy is commonly required due to
hepatic toxicity
Cardiotoxicity
ECG pretherapy and frequently during therapy
Hold (or do not initiate) kinase inhibitor therapy if QTc >480 ms
Echocardiogram: elective, but recommended in any patient with cardiac
history and especially important in patient with hypertension, symptoms
consistent with congestive heart failure or coronary artery disease and in
patients receiving sunitinib
Hypothyroidism
TSH should be assessed frequently, with levothyroxine dosage altered in response
to rising TSH if observed
Nephrotoxicity
Serial serum creatinine, urine analysis with protein determination,
Hematological toxicities
Serial CBC/diff
Pancreatitis
Serial amylase
Teratogenicity
Pretherapy pregnancy testing and effective contraception in women and men of
childbearing potential
CBC, complete blood count; ECG, electrocardiography.
symptomatic, and/or imminently threatening disease not
(Strong recommendation, Moderate-quality evidence)
otherwise amenable to control through other approaches,
including kinase inhibitors. Too few data exist to recom-
Metastatic bone disease represents a particularly chal-
mend specific cytotoxic regimens, and use within the context
lenging clinical problem in patients with RAI-refractory
of a therapeutic clinical trial is preferred.
DTC, especially given the high rate of multiple skeletal-
related events in patients following detection of an initial
(Weak recommendation, Low-quality evidence)
bone lesion (1054). Patients with a small number of threat-
ening and/or symptomatic bone lesions are generally best
Although doxorubicin was approved for use in thyroid
treated with focal approaches such as radiation therapy and/
cancer by the US FDA in 1974 and has some utility in ana-
or surgery and/or thermoablation. Many patients, however,
plastic thyroid cancer, cytotoxic chemotherapy has histori-
suffer from diffuse progression of bone metastases that are
cally produced disappointing results when used to treat RAI-
not amenable to effective control using focal therapies alone.
refractory DTC (1038). Cytotoxic chemotherapy, however,
In such patients, focal therapy to symptomatic lesions or le-
may have selective benefit in patients unresponsive to kinase
sions at high risk of complications may be beneficial and
inhibitors and perhaps also in some patients with poorly
should be performed before initiation of systemic treatment.
differentiated thyroid cancer (1053). Data are limited and
Unfortunately, kinase inhibitors appear to be less effective
primarily anecdotal.
in controlling bone metastatic disease in comparison to dis-
ease at other soft tissue sites such as lungs and lymph nodes.
[C47] Bone-directed agents
Progression of bone metastases while on kinase inhibitor
therapy commonly occurs despite maintained benefit with
&
RECOMMENDATION 101
respect to disease at other metastatic sites. Hence, kinase
Bisphosphonate or denosumab therapy should be consid-
inhibitor therapy cannot be relied upon to control diffuse
ered in patients with diffuse and/or symptomatic bone
bone metastases in many patients with RAI-refractory DTC.
metastases from RAI-refractory DTC, either alone or
In other solid tumors, bone-directed therapeutics including
concomitantly with other systemic therapies. Adequate
bisphosphonates (especially zoledronic acid) and the RANK
renal function (bisphosphonates) and calcium level (bi-
ligand–directed agent denosumab have been shown to delay
sphosphonates and denosumab) should be documented
time to occurrence of subsequent skeletal-related adverse
prior to each dose, and dental evaluation should take place
events (fracture, pain, neurologic complications) and to improve
before initial use.
symptoms, and these agents may provide benefits for patients
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
89
with diffuse bone metastases (1055,1056). The determination of
cancer detection in thyroid nodules as compared to the cur-
benefits across several tumor types suggests that they may be
rently available clinical tests. If such progress continues, it is
broadly generalizable, prompting FDA approval for their gen-
expected that future molecular tests will be able to predict the
eral use in patients with solid tumor bone metastases. Two small
risk of cancer in thyroid nodules with high accuracy, dra-
studies have suggested benefit from bisphosphonates specifi-
matically reducing the uncertainty of indeterminate FNA
cally within the context of DTC bone metastases (951,1057).
cytology. Furthermore, as the cost of next-generation se-
Risks of bisphosphonates and RANK ligand–directed
quencing of human DNA continues to decrease and the an-
agents include hypocalcemia, which can be severe, prompt-
alytical tools become more efficient, it should be expected
ing the recommended concomitant use of supplemental cal-
that the cost of molecular testing will decrease, enabling cost-
cium and vitamin D therapy. Moreover, these agents also
efficient utilization of testing.
moderately increase the risk of nonhealing oral lesions and
Molecular markers are expected to have a significant im-
jaw osteonecrosis; thus, candidates for this therapy should
pact on cancer prognostication. While the BRAF status can
undergo dental/oral surgical evaluation prior to their initia-
be considered as a relatively sensitive prognostic marker
tion so as to minimize these risks (1055).
for papillary cancer, it cannot be used in isolation for tumor
Recent studies have overall shown equivalence or superi-
prognostication. However, recent results obtained by broad
ority of denosumab to zoledronic acid in delaying bone-
tumor genotyping show that several specific molecular sig-
related adverse events in several solid tumors, with similar
natures (such as presence of several driver mutations, TP53
risk of jaw osteonecrosis, greater incidence of hypocalcemia,
mutation, TERT mutation in isolation or in combination with
and less nephrotoxicity (1058). However, no thyroid-specific
BRAF) are found in a small fraction of well-differentiated
data related to the efficacy of denosumab have yet been
papillary and follicular cancers and appear to be associated
published. If the patient’s renal function is impaired, there is
with more aggressive tumor behavior. It is expected that these
sometimes justification for beginning with RANK ligand–
molecular signatures will be confirmed and perhaps further
directed/denosumab therapy because this agent seems to
improved in additional studies and will offer a more specific
produce fewer adverse renal effects, albeit the oral/jaw ef-
detection of well-differentiated thyroid cancers that have
fects are similar to bisphosphonates in magnitude.
high risks of tumor recurrence and cancer-related mortality.
Expert consensus is that bone-directed therapy should be
Furthermore, research may identify how such data may in-
strongly considered in patients with multiple progressing
form therapeutic decision-making (e.g., surgical extent [if
and/or symptomatic bone metastases, likely best beginning
any], treatment with multi-kinase and specific kinase inhib-
with bisphosphonate/zoledronic acid (assuming calcium and
itors or their combination). Discoveries of new gene muta-
renal function permit). Candidates for such therapy should be
tions/rearrangements involved in the pathogenesis of thyroid
cleared by their dentist/oral surgeon prior to therapy initia-
cancer, such as those of ALK and NTRK3, are expected to
tion; in addition, calcium and vitamin D therapy should be
offer new effective therapeutic targets. Finally, new thera-
ongoing in conjunction with any intended bone-directed ther-
peutic approaches to target genes commonly mutated in
apeutic. In general, there is consensus that the administration of
thyroid cancer, such as the RAS genes, are in development
zoledronic acid therapy every 3 months (rather than every
and expected to enter clinical trials in the future. Prospective
month) is a reasonable initial approach in terms of dosing in-
long-term outcome studies, ideally in the form of RCTs, will
terval, but randomized trial data are unavailable to definitively
be needed to define the optimal surgical and postsurgical
clarify this issue. Expert consensus is that bone-directed ther-
management of patients based on these molecular signatures.
apy should be used in the setting of diffuse bone metastases
Such research may enable personalized, evidence-based care
even if kinase inhibitor therapy is intended or ongoing.
of patients with thyroid cancer across the disease trajectory.
[D3] Active surveillance of DTC primary tumors
[D1] DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Our Japanese colleagues have provided compelling data
that an active surveillance management approach to papil-
[D2] Optimizing molecular markers for diagnosis, progno-
lary microcarcinoma is a safe and effective alternative to
sis, and therapeutic targets
immediate surgical resection in properly selected patients
Significant progress has been made over the last several
(143,149).
years in understanding the genetic mechanisms of thyroid
Unfortunately, no clinical features or molecular abnor-
cancer and creating molecular tests for cancer diagnosis in
mality in isolation can reliably differentiate the relatively
thyroid nodules. This process is currently going through an
small number of PTMC patients destined to develop clini-
accelerated phase, which is expected to continue into the
cally significant progression from the larger population of
future. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and work from
people that harbor indolent PTMCs that will not cause sig-
multiple research laboratories led to the identification of
nificant disease. Therefore, additional studies are needed to
mutations and other driver genetic alterations in more than
identify specific risk factors that would favor surgical re-
90% of thyroid cancers, making it one of the best charac-
section over active surveillance.
terized human cancers from a genetic standpoint (1059). The
Furthermore, additional studies are needed to define
TCGA focused only on PTC. Moreover, next-generation
important management issues that arise during an active
sequencing technologies may allow detection of most of
surveillance follow-up approach. These issues include the
these alterations in a limited cell sample obtained by FNA.
frequency of US evaluations required during follow-up, op-
Progress in identifying mutational, other genetic (gene ex-
timal TSH goals, the potential role of serum Tg in follow-up,
pression, miRNA), and epigenetic markers of thyroid cancer
and specific indications for surgical intervention (e.g., what
is expected to result in a significantly improved accuracy of
measurements should be used to define a clinically significant
90
HAUGEN ET AL.
increase in the size of the primary tumor, what constitutes
Longer-term follow-up and randomized multicenter studies
clinically significant lymph node metastases).
are needed to determine how this commonly used biomarker
Finally, studies that examine decision-making and ac-
can be applied to decision-making in a majority of patients
ceptability of an active surveillance approach to thyroid
with low- to intermediate-risk DTC. Prospective collection of
cancer in patients, family members, and clinicians are re-
data on quality of life and related outcomes (when relevant) is
quired to better understand how to implement this novel
also needed in DTC trials. Using an evidence-based approach
management approach outside of Japan. These studies should
to knowledge synthesis (systematic reviews, meta-analyses,
ideally be performed in the context of an Institutional Review
and clinical practice guidelines) of data can also enable
Board–approved clinical trial.
evidence-informed clinical practice. Barriers to dissemination
and implementation of clinical practice guideline recommen-
[D4] Improved risk stratification
dations need to be overcome. Evidence-based guidelines may
While the AJCC/UICC TNM staging provides valuable
need to be formally adapted to various practice settings
information with regard to disease-specific mortality, studies
to enable their implementation. Important gaps in patient-
are needed to determine if inclusion of additional prognostic
directed knowledge translation have been recently identified
variables into the AJCC staging system could improve its
by thyroid cancer patients and survivors (1060,1061). The
predictive ability. Potential variables for consideration in-
development of plain language educational materials, in-
clude the specific histology (well-differentiated thyroid
cluding decision aids or other decision support tools would be
cancer versus poorly differentiated thyroid cancer), molecu-
helpful for use as adjuncts in physician counseling of patients
lar profile, size and location of distant metastases (pulmonary
about diagnostic and treatment options. Decision aids and
metastases versus bone metastases versus brain metastases),
other decision support have been associated with improve-
functional status of the metastases (RAI avid versus 18FDG-
ment in patients’ medical knowledge and reducing decisional
PET avid), and effectiveness of initial therapy (completeness
conflict, in general oncology (1062,1063), with a recent RCT
of resection; effectiveness of RAI, external beam radiation,
demonstrating benefits of a decision aid in thyroid cancer
or other systemic therapies).
survivors considering RAI remnant ablation (1064).
Furthermore, additional studies will be required to deter-
mine if there is any significant incremental benefit of adding
[D6] Issues with measurement of Tg and anti-Tg anti-
these specific prognostic variables to the 2009 Initial Risk
bodies
Stratification system.
Current methodologies for both Tg and anti-Tg antibodies
Since the response to therapy dynamic (ongoing) risk
remain problematic in many ways that hopefully will be
stratification systems were primarily optimized and validated
overcome in the future. For Tg assays, these include interfer-
on DTC patients that had total thyroidectomy and RAI remnant
ence with Tg measurement by the presence of anti-Tg and
ablation or adjuvant therapy, additional studies are needed to
heterophile antibodies and the use of a host of different
refine the definitions of excellent, biochemical incomplete,
methods with varying results in terms of sensitivity or detec-
structural incomplete, and indeterminate responses in patients
tion limits. Assay calibration or standardization may be suc-
treated with total thyroidectomy without RAI ablation and in
cessful only if the same certified reference standard is
patients treated with less than total thyroidectomy (602). Fur-
employed, which currently is CRM-457. While more ‘‘ultra-
thermore, additional studies are needed to define what types of
sensitive’’ Tg assays have been developed, we need to deter-
cross-sectional/functional imaging are required to rule out
mine the true clinical significance or utility of measurable
structural disease in order to classify a patient as having a
levels below 0.2 ng/mL (either on suppression or after TSH
biochemical incomplete response to therapy (based on initial
stimulation) as indicating evidence of residual disease or out-
risk, serum Tg, signs/symptoms, or other imaging results).
come. Recently developed mass spectrometry–based assays
Another area of significant research interest centers on iden-
have offered some promise, but are yet to be validated (806).
tifying specific clinical situations in which the molecular find-
Competitive immunoassays have not provided an alternative in
ings provide clinically meaningful information that goes beyond
view of their unpredictability (771). In regard to anti-Tg an-
what is predicted by standard clinico-pathological staging.
tibodies, we need to better characterize the various epitopes of
Molecular findings that provide these types of prognostic in-
interfering antibodies to better understand their effect in dif-
formation or guide optimal initial/ongoing treatment decisions
ferent sera in order to interpret the associated spectrum of
have the potential to significantly alter clinical management.
results obtained for measurable Tg. We will need to do better
than approximating Tg levels by the ratio of ICMA Tg to Tg
[D5] Improving our understanding of the risks and benefits
measured by competitive immunoassay (1065). Authoritative
of DTC treatments and optimal implementation/utilization
bodies such as the National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry
In achieving a better understanding of the risks and ben-
should consider mandating specific methodology rather than
efits of DTC treatments (such as extent of primary surgery or
recommending general guidance. It remains to be seen whether
secondary surgery for recurrence, RAI ablation/treatment,
the future standard might entail adoption of a modified ICMA,
and thyroid hormone suppressive therapy), more prospective
radioimmunoassay, or mass spectrometry methodology.
long-term outcome research is needed, and in particular,
RCTs. In the case of relatively uncommon adverse effects of
[D7] Management of metastatic cervical adenopathy de-
treatments, prospective surveillance research is also needed.
tected on US
Vaisman and colleagues (633) are conducting a prospective,
With the advent of improved technology, increased utili-
nonrandomized study to determine which patients with low-
zation, and specialized operator experience, US imaging can
to intermediate-risk DTC should receive RAI remnant abla-
identify small-volume metastatic cervical lymph nodes.
tion based on the postoperative stimulated serum Tg level.
From the surgical pathology literature analyzing specimens
ATA THYROID NODULE/DTC GUIDELINES
91
from prophylactic lateral and central neck dissections with
levels and extent of clinical response in DTC, indicating
normal preoperative cervical lymph node sonography, up to
absence of response to pazopanib therapy in the lowest
90% of patients with papillary cancers <1 cm have metastatic
quintile of pazopanib drug levels, one clinical trial is pres-
level VI lymph nodes and up to 40% have metastatic lateral
ently examining the feasibility and potential benefits of in-
neck lymph nodes (359,1066,1067). Yet, in the absence of
dividualization of pazopanib therapy with the goal of
these dissections, this is not the observed clinical loco-
achieving target drug levels in the highest achievable fraction
regional recurrence rate for these patients. It should not be
of patients, in hopes of improving the fraction of patients
surprising then, that during extended surveillance, US will be
benefiting (NCT01552356). Another study is examining the
able to detect small-volume metastatic disease that may
differential impacts of continuous versus intermittent pazo-
represent a stable reservoir of residual cancer. On the other
panib dosing in thyroid cancer (NCT01813136).
hand, grossly involved metastatic lymph nodes were at one
Generally predicated upon identification of synergistic
time minimally invaded by metastatic thyroid cancer. The
interactions in preclinical models, several studies are exam-
challenge is to differentiate between low-volume metastatic
ining the question of whether therapy combining several
disease that progresses with potential clinical consequences,
agents may improve outcomes in thyroid cancer. Although
and that which remains stable. To date, only one study has
the majority of combinatorial studies assess effects of mul-
addressed this question, and no sonographic, pathologic, de-
tiple coadministered small molecule therapeutics, several are
mographic, or molecular feature predicted outcome (849). In
using kinase inhibitors in combination with RAI in efforts to
addition, it is unclear if growth itself is a harbinger of de-
enhance RAI avidity and clinical efficacy in the context of
creased survival. Therefore, observational studies using stan-
RAI-refractory disease (e.g., NCT00970359). Still other tri-
dardized US scanning protocols are first required to define the
als are focusing on novel nontraditional therapies, including
magnitude of this scenario and define predictors of disease
engineered candidate virotherapeutics (e.g., NCT01229865).
progression. Subsequently, randomized controlled interven-
Alternatively, another active area of investigation involves
tional trials could be designed to address change in outcome,
efforts to therapeutically target specific alterations (mutations,
such as development of additional loco-regional disease, ap-
translocation) found in thyroid cancers to individualize ther-
pearance of distant metastases, or disease-specific survival.
apy and thereby potentially improve outcomes in the process;
one such recent example is the use of the BRAFV600E inhibitor
[D8] Novel therapies for systemic RAI-refractory disease
vemurafenib in BRAFV600E PTC (NCT01286753), with many
Over the years, a wide variety of agents have been used
additional mutation-specific therapeutic trials under devel-
in preclinical (valproic acid, trichostatin, depsipeptide, 5-
opment or underway.
azacytidine, arsenic tri-oxide) and clinical (retinoids, thiazoli-
Finally, immunotherapy including checkpoint inhibitors
dinediones) models to ‘‘redifferentiate’’ thyroid cancer cells in
(e.g., PD-1/PD-L1) has shown promise in other cancers
order to restore RAI avidity. While these agents showed limited
(1069–1071) and is being investigated in advanced RAI-
clinical effectiveness, the observation that oncogenic activation
refractory thyroid cancer.
of the MAP kinase pathway was associated with down-
regulation of the genes involved in iodine metabolism sug-
[D9] Survivorship care
gested an alternative, targeted approach to redifferentiation
The American Cancer Society estimates that there will be
therapy. Recently, two proof-of-principle pilot clinical trials
62,450 new cases of thyroid cancer diagnosed in 2015, but
have confirmed that targeted blockade of the MAP kinase
only 1950 deaths from thyroid cancer (www.cancer.org/cancer/
pathway can result in clinically relevant restoration of RAI
thyroidcancer/detailedguide/thyroid-cancer-key-statistics). Ac-
avidity in a substantial percentage of RAI-refractory thyroid
cording to SEER database statistics, there are more than
cancer patients (1052,1068). In the first trial, 1 month of the
600,000 people living with thyroid cancer in the United States
MEK inhibitor selumetinib increased RAI uptake in 12 of 20
alone (seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/thyro.html). Despite these
iodine-refractory thyroid cancer patients, with structural tumor
large numbers of patients living with thyroid cancer, there is
shrinkage seen in five of the eight patients that achieved lesional
only a modest amount of peer-reviewed literature studying
dosimetry high enough to warrant RAI therapy (1052). In the
thyroid cancer survivors.
second trial, 1 month of the BRAF inhibitor dabrabenib restored
The majority of the literature involving thyroid cancer
RAI avidity on diagnostic WBS in 6 of 10 RAI-refractory pa-
survivors relates directly to the short- and long-term effects of
tients, resulting in structural responses in two patients and a
thyroid cancer therapies: surgery, RAI, and lifetime thyroid
decrease in serum Tg in four patients (1068). While the primary
hormone therapy. There is very little information regarding the
focus of current redifferentiation trials has been in the setting of
impact of the diagnosis itself or the effect of living with per-
RAI-refractory distant metastases, future studies are needed to
sistent disease such as Tg-positive, scan-negative thyroid
define the role of redifferentiation therapy in the high-risk ad-
cancer. A thoughtful and comprehensive analysis of thyroid
juvant therapy setting and in the RAI-responsive metastatic
cancer survivors will likely require both qualitative studies
disease setting in an effort to enhance the tumoricidal effect of
with in-depth interviews of survivors that will represent as
RAI before the tumors become RAI refractory.
many demographics of thyroid cancer patients as possible.
Efforts to develop additional and further improved sys-
Additionally, or as a next step, the development and/or utili-
temic therapeutic approaches to RAI-refractory metastatic
zation of a validated survey type instrument needs to be de-
DTC presently involve a wide a variety of approaches. First,
veloped. This instrument would be designed to assess the
the question arises as to whether kinase inhibitors with al-
quality of life of thyroid cancer survivors in a more quantita-
ready demonstrated clinical activity in DTC can be made
tive manner, allowing for rigorous statistical analyses, and will
more effective as single agents. For example, based upon data
help identifying areas to target that may improve the lives of
indicating strong correlation between achieved pazopanib
thyroid cancer survivors (1072).
92
HAUGEN ET AL.
Further research also needs to be performed in addressing
K.C.B., G.M.D., F.P., G.A.R., A.M.S., and K.S. have no
patient and survivor care needs throughout the active treat-
significant financial or competing interests to disclose.
ment and survivorship trajectory, including issues such as
B.R.H. has received grant/research support from Veracyte
identification and management of treatment-related side ef-
and Genzyme, as well as a one-time speaker honorarium from
fects (1060,1061), psychosocial distress (1060,1061), per-
Genzyme. E.K.A. has received research support from Asura-
sistent fatigue (1073,1074), financial impact (12), and
gen, Veracyte, and Novo Nordisk. He has been a consultant for
cancer-related worry (1075).
NPS Pharmaceuticals, Genzyme, and Veracyte as well as on
the Scientific Advisory Board for Asuragen. S.J.M. has re-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ceived grant/research support from Veracyte and Asuragen.
She has been on the scientific advisory committee for Asuragen
The task force wishes to thank Ms. Bobbi Smith, Executive
and has been a CME speaker for Genzyme. Y.N. has been a
Director, ATA, and Ms. Sharleene Cano, Assistant to the
consultant for Quest Diagnostics. His institution, UPMC, has a
Taskforce, for their constant help and support, as well as Ms.
service agreement with CBLPath to provide molecular testing
Vicki Wright (Division of Endocrinology, University of Color-
for various tumors. M.S. has received grant/research support
ado School of Medicine) for her assistance in manuscript
from Genzyme, Bayer, AstraZeneca, Exelixis, and Eisai. He
preparation. We thank Dr. Joshua Klopper (Division of En-
has been a consultant for Genzyme, Bayer, AstraZeneca, Ex-
docrinology, University of Colorado School of Medicine) on
elixis, and Eisai. S.I.S. has received grant/research support
behalf of the CAC Quality Of Life Task Force for the contri-
from Genzyme and the National Cancer Institute. He is a
bution of the Survivorship Care section [D9]. We also thank Dr.
consultant for Veracyte, Exelixis, Bayer, AstraZeneca, Eisai,
Irwin Klein (North Shore University Hospital, Manhasset, New
Genzyme, Novo Nordisk, and Eli Lilly. He has received hon-
York) for his input on TSH targets for long-term thyroid hor-
oraria from Onyx, and he has fiduciary responsibility as
mone therapy (Table 15). We would like to thank the ATA
Chairman of International Thyroid Oncology Group. J.A.S. has
members who responded to our survey in preparation for this
received one-time speaker honorarium from Exelixis and is a
iteration of the guidelines as well as manuscript review prior to
member/ATA representative on the Data Monitoring Com-
journal submission, and the leadership of ThyCa: Thyroid
mittee for the Medullary Thyroid Cancer Registry called for by
Cancer Survivors’ Association, Inc. and Thyroid Cancer Canada
the FDA and funded by NovoNordisk, Astra Zeneca, Glax-
who provided written feedback on our survey. A.M.S. holds a
oSmithKline, and Eli Lilly. D.L.S. has received grant/research
Cancer Care Ontario Health Services Research Chair, which
support from Astra-Zeneca. R.M.T. is a consultant for Gen-
enabled protected time for research and contribution to these
zyme, Novo Nordisk, AstraZeneca, Bayer/Onyx, and Veracyte.
guidelines. These guidelines were funded by the ATA without
L.W. has been a consultant for Asuragen, Interpace Diag-
support from any commercial sources. The patient organization,
nostics, Eisei, and IBSA. He has received speaker honoraria
ThyCa: Thyroid Cancer Survivors’ Association, Inc., contributed
from Genzyme.
an unrestricted educational grant toward the development of the
E.K.A. and R.M.T. received consulting payments through
thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer guidelines.
stock options from Veracyte. This has been reviewed and
The following groups reviewed and endorsed the final
discussed with the Ethics Committee and reviewed by the
document: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists;
ATA Board. E.K.A. and R.M.T. were recused from review
American Association of Endocrine Surgeons; American Head
and approval of the molecular markers sections. They di-
and Neck Society; Asia Oceania Thyroid Association (AOTA);
vested these stock options prior to submission of this docu-
British Society of Nuclear Medicine; Canadian Association of
ment for journal review.
Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery; The Endocrine So-
ciety; Endocrine Society of Australia; European Thyroid As-
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E-mail: [email address]